Spectral Chemistry

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to controlling the formation of water in a reaction system comprising hydrogen, oxygen and atomic hydrogen by irradiating the reaction system with electromagnetic emissions from a platinum lamp such that the atomic hydrogen is direct resonance targeted. Physical platinum may also be present in the reaction system.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND PATENT

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/203,797, filed on Nov. 27, 2002; which was a national phase entry ofInternational Application No. PCT/US01/28392, filed on Sep. 11, 2001.The instant application claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 60/231,620, entitled, A Frequency Based Theory ofCatalysts, which was filed Sep. 11, 2000. This application is also aContinuation-In-Part of copending U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/919,679, entitled, Spectral Catalysts, filed Aug. 1, 2001 and nowabandoned, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/460,028, entitled Spectral Catalysts, filed Dec. 13, 1999, nowabandoned, which is a Divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/098,883, originally filed on Jun. 17, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No.6,033,531, which issued on Mar. 7, 2000, which claims the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/049,910, entitled, SpectralCatalysts, filed Jun. 18, 1997. This application also claims the benefitof U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/049,910. The subject matterof all of the above-identified Patent applications and Patent are herebyexpressly incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to a novel method to affect, control and/ordirect a reaction pathway (e.g., organic, inorganic, biologic or otherreaction) by, for example, exposing one or more participants in areaction system to at least one spectral energy pattern (e.g., at leastone spectral pattern comprising at least one frequency ofelectromagnetic radiation) which can be made to correspond to at least aportion of a spectral catalyst or a spectral energy catalyst. Theinvention also relates to mimicking various mechanisms of action ofvarious catalysts in reaction systems under various environmentalreaction conditions. The invention further discloses methods forsimulating, at least partially, one or more environmental reactionconditions by the application of one or more spectral environmentalreaction conditions. The invention specifically discloses differentmeans for achieving the matching of energy frequencies between, forexample, applied energy and matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases,plasmas and/or combinations or portions thereof), to achieve energytransfer to, for example, at least one participant in a reaction systemby taking into account various energy considerations in the reactionsystem. The invention also discloses an approach for designing ordetermining appropriate physical catalyst(s) to be used in a reactionsystem.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Chemical reactions are driven by energy. The energy comes in manydifferent forms including chemical, thermal, mechanical, acoustic, andelectromagnetic. Various features of each type of energy are thought tocontribute in different ways to the driving of chemical reactions.Irrespective of the type of energy involved, chemical reactions areundeniably and inextricably intertwined with the transfer andcombination of energy. An understanding of energy is, therefore, vitalto an understanding of chemical reactions.

A chemical reaction can be controlled and/or directed either by theaddition of energy to the reaction medium in the form of thermal,mechanical, acoustic and/or electromagnetic energy or by means oftransferring energy through a physical catalyst. These methods aretraditionally not that energy efficient and can produce, for example,either unwanted by-products, decomposition of required transients,and/or intermediates and/or activated complexes and/or insufficientquantities of preferred products of a reaction.

It has been generally believed that chemical reactions occur as a resultof collisions between reacting molecules. In terms of the collisiontheory of chemical kinetics, it has been expected that the rate of areaction is directly proportional to the number of the molecularcollisions per second:

rate α number of collisions/sec

This simple relationship explains the dependence of reaction rates onconcentration. Additionally, with few exceptions, reaction rates havebeen believed to increase with increasing temperature because ofincreased collisions.

The dependence of the rate constant k of a reaction can be expressed bythe following equation, known as the Arrhenius equation:

k=Ae ^(−Ea/RT)

where E_(a) is the activation energy of the reaction which is theminimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction, R isthe gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and e is the base of thenatural logarithm scale. The quantity A represents the collision rateand shows that the rate constant is directly proportional to A and,therefore, to the collision rate. Furthermore, because of the minus signassociated with the exponent E_(a)/RT, the rate constant decreases withincreasing activation energy and increases with increasing temperature.

Normally, only a small fraction of the colliding molecules, typicallythe fastest-moving ones, have enough kinetic energy to exceed theactivation energy, therefore, the increase in the rate constant k cannow be explained with the temperature increase. Since more high-energymolecules are present at a higher temperature, the rate of productformation is also greater at the higher temperature. But, with increasedtemperatures there are a number of problems which are introduced intothe reaction system. With thermal excitation other competing processes,such as bond rupture, may occur before the desired energy state can bereached. Also, there are a number of decomposition products which oftenproduce fragments that are extremely reactive, but they can be soshort-lived because of their thermodynamic instability, that a preferredreaction may be dampened.

Radiant or light energy is another form of energy that may be added tothe reaction medium that also may have negative side effects but whichmay be different from (or the same as) those side effects from thermalenergy. Addition of radiant energy to a system produces electronicallyexcited molecules that are capable of undergoing chemical reactions.

A molecule in which all the electrons are in stable orbitals is said tobe in the ground electronic state. These orbitals may be either bondingor non-bonding. If a photon of the proper energy collides with themolecule the photon may be absorbed and one of the electrons may bepromoted to an unoccupied orbital of higher energy. Electronicexcitation results in spatial redistribution of the valence electronswith concomitant changes in internuclear configurations. Since chemicalreactions are controlled to a great extent by these factors, anelectronically excited molecule undergoes a chemical reaction that maybe distinctly different from those of its ground-state counterpart.

The energy of a photon is defined in terms of its frequency orwavelength,

E=hv=hc/λ

where E is energy; h is Plank's constant, 6.6×10⁻³⁴ J·sec; v is thefrequency of the radiation, sec⁻¹; c is the speed of light; and λ is thewavelength of the radiation. When a photon is absorbed, all of itsenergy is imparted to the absorbing species. The primary act followingabsorption depends on the wavelength of the incident light.Photochemistry studies photons whose energies lie in the ultravioletregion (100-4000 Å) and in the visible region (4000-7000 Å) of theelectromagnetic spectrum. Such photons are primarily a cause ofelectronically excited molecules.

Since the molecules are imbued with electronic energy upon absorption oflight, reactions occur from different potential-energy surfaces fromthose encountered in thermally excited systems. However, there areseveral drawbacks of using the known techniques of photochemistry, thatbeing, utilizing a broad band of frequencies thereby causing unwantedside reactions, undue experimentation, and poor quantum yield. Some goodexamples of photochemistry are shown in the following patents.

In particular, U.S. Pat. No. 5,174,877 issued to Cooper, et al. al.,(1992) discloses an apparatus for the photocatalytic treatment ofliquids. In particular, it is disclosed that ultraviolet lightirradiates the surface of a prepared slurry to activate thephotocatalytic properties of the particles contained in the slurry. Thetransparency of the slurry affects, for example, absorption ofradiation. Moreover, discussions of different frequencies suitable forachieving desirable photocatalytic activity are disclosed.

Further, U.S. Pat. No. 4,755,269 issued to Brumer, et al. al., (1998)discloses a photodisassociation process for disassociating variousmolecules in a known energy level. In particular, it is disclosed thatdifferent disassociation pathways are possible and the differentpathways can be followed due to selecting different frequencies ofcertain electromagnetic radiation. It is further disclosed that theamplitude of electromagnetic radiation applied corresponds to amounts ofproduct produced.

Selective excitation of different species is shown in the followingthree (3) patents. Specifically, U.S. Pat. No. 4,012,301 to Rich, et al.al., (1977) discloses vapor phase chemical reactions that areselectively excited by using vibrational modes corresponding to thecontinuously flowing reactant species. Particularly, a continuous wavelaser emits radiation that is absorbed by the vibrational mode of thereactant species.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,215,634 issued to Wan, et al., (1993) discloses aprocess of selectively converting methane to a desired oxygenate. Inparticular, methane is irradiated in the presence of a catalyst withpulsed microwave radiation to convert reactants to desirable products.The physical catalyst disclosed comprises nickel and the microwaveradiation is applied in the range of about 1.5 to 3.0 GHz.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,015,349 issued to Suib, et al. al., (1991) discloses amethod for cracking a hydrocarbon to create cracked reaction products.It is disclosed that a stream of hydrocarbon is exposed to a microwaveenergy which creates a low power density microwave discharge plasma,wherein the microwave energy is adjusted to achieve desired results. Aparticular frequency desired of microwave energy is disclosed as being2.45 GHz.

Physical catalysts are well known in the art. Specifically, a physicalcatalyst is a substance which alters the reaction rate of a chemicalreaction without appearing in the end product. It is known that somereactions can be speeded up or controlled by the presence of substanceswhich themselves appear to remain unchanged after the reaction hasended. By increasing the velocity of a desired reaction relative tounwanted reactions, the formation of a desired product can be maximizedcompared with unwanted by-products. Often only a trace of physicalcatalyst is necessary to accelerate the reaction. Also, it has beenobserved that some substances, which if added in trace amounts, can slowdown the rate of a reaction. This looks like the reverse of catalysis,and, in fact, substances which slow down a reaction rate have beencalled negative catalysts or poisons. Known physical catalysts gothrough a cycle in which they are used and regenerated so that they canbe used again and again. A physical catalyst operates by providinganother path for the reaction which can have a higher reaction rate orslower rate than available in the absence of the physical catalyst. Atthe end of the reaction, because the physical catalyst can be recovered,it appears the physical catalyst is not involved in the reaction. But,the physical catalyst must somehow take part in the reaction, or elsethe rate of the reaction would not change. The catalytic act hashistorically been represented by five essential steps originallypostulated by Ostwald around the late 1800's:

1. Diffusion to the catalytic site (reactant);

2. Bond formation at the catalytic site (reactant);

3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;

4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and

5. Diffusion away from the catalytic site (product).

The exact mechanisms of catalytic actions are unknown in the art but itis known that physical catalysts can speed up a reaction that otherwisewould take place too slowly to be practical.

There are a number of problems involved with known industrial catalysts:firstly, physical catalysts can not only lose their efficiency but alsotheir selectivity, which can occur due to, for example, overheating orcontamination of the catalyst; secondly, many physical catalysts includecostly metals such as platinum or silver and have only a limited lifespan, some are difficult to rejuvenate, and the precious metals noteasily reclaimed. There are numerous physical limitations associatedwith physical catalysts which render them less than ideal participantsin many reactions.

Accordingly, what is needed is an understanding of the catalytic processso that biological processing, chemical processing, industrialprocessing, etc., can be engineered by more precisely controlling themultitude of reaction processes that currently exist, as well asdeveloping completely new reaction pathways and/or reaction products.Examples of such understandings include methods to catalyze reactionswithout the drawbacks of: (1) known physical catalysts; and (2)utilizing energy with much greater specificity than the prior artteachings which utilize less than ideal thermal and electromagneticradiation methods and which result in numerous inefficiencies.

DEFINITIONS

For purposes of this invention, the terms and expressions below,appearing in the Specification and Claims, are intended to have thefollowing meanings:

“Activated complex”, as used herein, means the assembly of atom(s)(charged or neutral) which corresponds to the maximum in the reactionprofile describing the transformation of reactant(s) into reactionproduct(s). Either the reactant or reaction product in this definitioncould be an intermediate in an overall transformation involving morethan one step.

“Applied spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means the totalityof: (a) all spectral energy patterns that are externally applied; and/or(b) spectral environmental reaction conditions input into a reactionsystem.

“Catalytic spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means at least aportion of a spectral energy pattern of a physical catalyst which whenapplied to a reaction system in the form of a beam or field can catalyzethe reaction system.

“Catalytic spectral pattern”, as used herein, means at least a portionof a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst which when applied to areaction system can catalyze the reaction system by the following:

completely replacing a physical chemical catalyst;

acting in unison with a physical chemical catalyst to increase the rateof reaction;

reducing the rate of reaction by acting as a negative catalyst; or

altering the reaction pathway for formation of a specific reactionproduct.

“Direct resonance targeting”, as used herein, means the application ofenergy to a reaction system by at least one of the following spectralenergy providers: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectralenergy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern;catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonance with atleast one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients;intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reactionproducts; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst supportmaterials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof, saidspectral energy providers providing energy to at least one of said formsof matter by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, excludingelectronic and vibrational frequencies in said reactants, to produce atleast one desired reaction product and/or at least one desired reactionproduct at a desired reaction rate.

“Environmental reaction condition”, as used herein, means and includestraditional reaction variables such as temperature, pressure, surfacearea of catalysts, physical catalyst size and shape, solvents, physicalcatalyst support materials, poisons, promoters, concentrations,electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magnetic fields, mechanicalforces, acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shape and composition andcombinations thereof, etc., which may be present and are capable ofinfluencing, positively or negatively, reaction pathways in a reactionsystem.

“Frequency”, as used herein, means the number of times which a physicalevent (e.g., wave, field and/or motion) varies from the equilibriumvalue through a complete cycle in a unit of time (e.g., one second; andone cycle/sec=1 Hz). The variation from equilibrium can be positiveand/or negative, and can be, for example, symmetrical, asymmetricaland/or proportional with regard to the equilibrium value.

“Harmonic targeting”, as used herein, means the application of energy toa reaction system by at least one of the following spectral energyproviders: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energypattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern; catalyticspectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve harmonic resonance with atleast one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients;intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reactionproducts; promoters, poisons; solvents; physical catalyst supportmaterials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof, saidspectral energy providers providing energy to at least one of said formsof matter by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, excludingelectronic and vibrational frequencies in said reactants, to produce atleast one desired reaction product and/or at least one desired reactionproduct at a desired reaction rate.

“Intermediate”, as used herein, means a molecule, ion and/or atom whichis present between a reactant and a reaction product in a reactionpathway or reaction profile. It corresponds to a minimum in the reactionprofile of the reaction between reactant and reaction product. Areaction which involves an intermediate is typically a stepwisereaction.

“Non-harmonic heterodyne targeting”, as used herein, means theapplication of energy to a reaction system by at least one of thefollowing spectral energy providers: spectral energy catalyst; spectralcatalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectralenergy pattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energypattern and spectral environmental reaction condition to achievenon-harmonic heterodyne resonance with at least one of the followingforms of matter: reactants; transients; intermediates; activatedcomplexes; physical catalysts; reaction products; promoters; poisons;solvents; physical catalyst support materials; reaction vessels; and/ormixtures or components thereof, said spectral energy provider providingenergy to at least one of said forms of matter by interacting with atleast one frequency thereof, to produce at least one desired reactionproduct and/or at least one desired reaction product at a desiredreaction rate.

“Participant”, as used herein, means reactant, transient, intermediate,activated complex, physical catalyst, promoter, poison and/or reactionproduct comprised of molecules, ions and/or atoms (or componentsthereof).

“Reactant”, as used herein, means a starting material or startingcomponent in a reaction system. A reactant can be any inorganic, organicand/or biologic atom, molecule, ion, compound, substance, and/or thelike.

“Reaction coordinate”, as used herein, means an intra- orinter-molecular/atom configurational variable whose change correspondsto the conversion of reactant into reaction product.

“Reaction pathway”, as used herein, means those steps which lead to theformation of reaction product(s). A reaction pathway may includeintermediates and/or transients and/or activated complexes. A reactionpathway may include some or all of a reaction profile.

“Reaction product”, as used herein, means any product of a reactioninvolving a reactant. A reaction product may have a different chemicalcomposition from a reactant or a substantially similar (or exactly thesame) chemical composition but exhibit a different physical orcrystalline structure and/or phase.

“Reaction profile”, as used herein means a plot of energy (e.g.,molecular potential energy, molar enthalpy, or free energy) againstreaction coordinate for the conversion of reactant(s) into reactionproduct(s).

“Reaction system”, as used herein, means the combination of reactants,intermediates, transients, activated complexes, physical catalysts,poisons, promoters, spectral catalysts, spectral energy catalysts,reaction products, environmental reaction conditions, spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, applied spectral energy pattern,etc., that are involved in any reaction pathway.

“Resultant energy pattern”, as used herein, means the totality of energyinteractions between the applied spectral energy pattern with allparticipants and/or components in the reaction systems.

“Spectral catalyst”, as used herein, means electromagnetic energy whichacts as a catalyst in a reaction system, for example, electromagneticenergy having a spectral pattern which affects, controls, or directs areaction pathway.

“Spectral energy catalyst”, as used herein, means energy which acts as acatalyst in a reaction system having a spectral energy pattern whichaffects, controls and/or directs a reaction pathway.

“Spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means a pattern formed by oneor more energies and/or components emitted or absorbed by a molecule,ion, atom and/or component(s) thereof and/or which is present by and/orwithin a molecule, ion, atom and/or component(s) thereof.

“Spectral environmental reaction condition”, as used herein, means atleast one frequency and/or field which simulates at least a portion ofat least one environmental reaction condition in a reaction system.

“Spectral pattern”, as used herein, means a pattern formed by one ormore electromagnetic frequencies emitted or absorbed after excitation ofan atom or molecule. A spectral pattern may be formed by any knownspectroscopic technique.

“Targeting”, as used herein, means the application of energy to areaction system by at least one of the following spectral energyproviders: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energypattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern; catalyticspectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern; and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonance and/orharmonic resonance and/or non-harmonic heterodyne-resonance with atleast one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients;intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reactionproducts; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst supportmaterials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof, saidspectral energy provider providing energy to at least one of said formsof matter by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, to produceat least one desired reaction product and/or at least one desiredreaction product at a desired reaction rate.

“Transient”, as used herein, means any chemical and/or physical statethat exists between reactant(s) and reaction product(s) in a reactionpathway or reaction profile.

This invention overcomes many of the deficiencies associated with theuse of various known physical catalysts in a variety of differentenvironments. More importantly, this invention, for the first time ever,discloses a variety of novel spectral energy techniques, referred tosometimes herein as spectral chemistry, that can be utilized in a numberof reactions, including very basic reactions, which may be desirable toachieve or to permit to occur in a virtually unlimited number of areas.

These spectral energy techniques can be used in, for example, any typesof biological reactions (i.e., plant and animal), physical reactions,chemical reactions (i.e., organic or inorganic) industrial (i.e., anyindustrial reactions of large scale or small scale), and/or energyreactions of any type, etc.

These novel spectral energy techniques (now referred to as spectralchemistry) are possible to achieve due to the fundamental discoveriescontained herein that disclose various means for achieving the transferof energy between, for example, two entities. The invention teaches thatthe key for transferring energy between two entities (e.g., one entitysharing energy with another entity) is that when frequencies match,energy transfers. For example, matching of frequencies of spectralenergy patterns of two different forms of matter; or matching offrequencies of a spectral energy pattern of matter with energy in theform of a spectral energy catalyst. The entities may both be comprisedof matter (solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/or mixtures and/orcomponents thereof), both comprised of various form(s) of energy, or onecomprised of various form(s) of energy and the other comprised of matter(solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/or mixtures and/or componentsthereof).

More specifically, all matter can be represented by spectral energypatterns, which can be quite simple to very complex in appearance,depending on, for example, the complexity of the matter. One example ofa spectral energy pattern is a spectral pattern which likewise can bequite simple to quite complex in appearance, depending on, for example,the complexity of the matter. In the case of matter represented byspectral patterns, matter can exchange energy with other matter if, forexample, the spectral patterns of the two forms of matter match, atleast partially, or can be made to match or overlap, at least partially(e.g., spectral curves or spectral patterns comprising one or moreelectromagnetic frequencies may overlap with each other). In general,but not in all cases, the greater the overlap in spectral patterns (andthus, the greater the overlap of frequencies comprising the spectralpatterns), the greater the amount of energy transferred. Likewise, forexample, if the spectral pattern of at least one form of energy can becaused to match or overlap, at least partially, with the spectralpattern of matter, energy will also transfer to the matter. Thus, energycan be transferred to matter by causing frequencies to match.

As discussed elsewhere herein, energy (E), frequency (v) and wavelength(λ) and the speed of light (c) in a vacuum are interrelated through, forexample, the following equation:

E=hv=hc/λ

When a frequency or set of frequencies corresponding to at least a firstform of matter can be caused to match with a frequency or set offrequencies corresponding to at least a second form of matter, energycan transfer between the different forms of matter and permit at leastsome interaction and/or reaction to occur involving at least one of thetwo different forms of matter. For example, solid, liquid, gas and/orplasma (and/or mixtures and/or portions thereof) forms of matter caninteract and/or react and form a desirable reaction product or result.Any combination(s) of the above forms of matter (e.g., solid/solid,solid/liquid, solid/gas, solid/plasma, solid/gas/plasma,solid/liquid/gas, etc., and/or mixtures and/or portions thereof) arepossible to achieve for desirable interactions and/or reactions tooccur.

Further, matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/ormixtures and/or portions thereof) can be caused, or influenced, tointeract and/or react with other matter and/or portions thereof in, forexample, a reaction system along a desired reaction pathway by applyingenergy, in the form of, for example, a catalytic spectral energypattern, a catalytic spectral pattern, a spectral energy pattern, aspectral energy catalyst, a spectral pattern, a spectral catalyst, aspectral environmental reaction condition and/or combinations thereof,which can collectively result in an applied spectral energy pattern.

In these cases, interactions and/or reactions may be caused to occurwhen the applied spectral energy pattern results in, for example, sometype of modification to the spectral energy pattern of one or more ofthe forms of matter in the reaction system. The various forms of matterinclude reactants; transients; intermediates; activated complexes;physical catalysts; reaction products; promoters; poisons; solvents;physical catalyst support materials; reaction vessels; and/or mixturesof components thereof. For example, the applied spectral energy provider(i.e., at least one of spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst;spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energypattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern andspectral environmental reaction conditions) when targeted appropriatelyto, for example, a participant and/or component in the reaction system,can result in the generation of, and/or desirable interaction with, oneor more participants. Specifically, the applied spectral energy providercan be targeted to achieve very specific desirable results and/orreaction product and/or reaction product at a desired rate. Thetargeting can occur by a direct resonance approach, (i.e., directresonance targeting), a harmonic resonance approach (i.e., harmonictargeting) and/or a non-harmonic heterodyne resonance approach (i.e.,non-harmonic heterodyne targeting). The spectral energy provider can betargeted to, for example, interact with at least one frequency of anatom or molecule, including, but not limited to, electronic frequencies,vibrational frequencies, rotational frequencies, rotational-vibrationalfrequencies, fine splitting frequencies, hyperfine splittingfrequencies, magnetic field induced frequencies, electric field inducedfrequencies, natural oscillating frequencies, and all components and/orportions thereof (discussed in greater detail later herein). Theseapproaches may result in, for example, the mimicking of at least onemechanism of action of a physical catalyst in a reaction system. Forexample, in some cases, desirable results may be achieved by utilizing asingle applied spectral energy pattern targeted to a single participant;while in other cases, more than one applied spectral energy pattern maybe targeted to a single participant or multiple participants, by, forexample, multiple approaches. Specifically, combinations of directresonance targeting, harmonic targeting and non-harmonic heterodynetargeting, which can be made to interact with one or more frequenciesoccurring in atoms and/or molecules, could be used sequentially orsubstantially continuously. Further, in certain cases, the spectralenergy provider targeting may result in various interactions atpredominantly the upper energy levels of one or more of the variousforms of matter present in a reaction system.

The invention further recognizes and explains that various environmentalreaction conditions are capable of influencing reaction pathways in areaction system when using a spectral energy catalyst such as a spectralcatalyst. The invention teaches specific methods for controlling variousenvironmental reaction conditions in order to achieve desirable resultsin a reaction (e.g., desirable reaction product(s) in one or moredesirable reaction pathway(s)) and/or interaction. The invention furtherdiscloses an applied spectral energy approach which permits thesimulation, at least partially, of desirable environmental reactionconditions by the application of at least one, for example, spectralenvironmental reaction conditions. Thus, environmental reactionconditions can be controlled and used in combination with at least onespectral energy pattern to achieve a desired reaction pathway.Alternatively, traditionally utilized environmental reaction conditionscan be modified in a desirable manner (e.g., application of a reducedtemperature and/or reduced pressure) by supplementing and/or replacingthe traditional environmental reaction condition(s) with at least onespectral environmental reaction condition.

The invention also provides a method for determining desirable physicalcatalysts (i.e., comprising previously known materials or materials notpreviously known to function as a physical catalyst) which can beutilized in a reaction system to achieve a desired reaction pathwayand/or desired reaction rate. In this regard, the invention may be ableto provide a recipe for a physical and/or spectral catalyst for aparticular reaction system where no physical catalyst previouslyexisted. In this embodiment of the invention, spectral energy patternsare determined or calculated by the techniques of the invention andcorresponding physical catalysts can be supplied or manufactured andthereafter included in the reaction system to generate the calculatedrequired spectral energy patterns. In certain cases, one or moreexisting physical species could be used or combined in a suitablemanner, if a single physical species was deemed to be insufficient, toobtain the appropriate calculated spectral energy pattern to achieve adesired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate. Such catalystscan be used alone, in combination with other physical catalysts,spectral energy catalysts, controlled environmental reaction conditionsand/or spectral environmental reaction conditions to achieve a desiredresultant energy pattern and consequent reaction pathway and/or desiredreaction rate.

The invention discloses many different permutations of the basic themestated throughout namely, that when frequencies match, energy transfers.It should be understood that these many different permutations can beused alone to achieve desirable results (e.g., desired reaction pathwaysand/or a desired reaction rates) or can be used in a limitlesscombination of permutations, to achieve desired results (e.g., desiredreaction pathways and/or desired reaction rates). However, common to allof these seemingly complicated permutations and combinations is thebasic understanding first provided by this invention that in order tocontrol or enable any reaction, so long as frequencies of two entitiesmatch (e.g., spectral patterns overlap), energy can be transferred. Ifenergy is transferred, desirable interactions and/or reactions canresult.

Moreover, this concept can also be used in the reverse. Specifically, ifa reaction is occurring because frequencies match, the reaction can beslowed or stopped by causing the frequencies to no longer match or atleast match to a lesser degree. In this regard, one or more reactionsystem components (e.g., environmental reaction condition, spectralenvironmental reaction condition and/or an applied spectral energypattern) can be modified and/or applied so as to minimize, reduce oreliminate frequencies from matching. This also permits reactions to bestarted and stopped with ease providing for novel control in a myriad ofreactions.

To simplify the disclosure and understanding of the invention, specificcategories or sections have been created in the “Summary of theInvention” and in the “Detailed Description of the PreferredEmbodiments”. However, it should be understood that these categories arenot mutually exclusive and that some overlap exists. Accordingly, theseartificially created sections should not be used in an effort to limitthe scope of the invention defined in the appended claims.

I. Wave Energies

In general, thermal energy has traditionally been used to drive chemicalreactions by applying heat and increasing the temperature of a reactionsystem. The addition of heat increases the kinetic (motion) energy ofthe chemical reactants. It has been believed that a reactant with morekinetic energy moves faster and farther, and is more likely to take partin a chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise, by stirring andmoving the chemicals, increases their kinetic energy and thus theirreactivity. The addition of mechanical energy often increasestemperature, by increasing kinetic energy.

Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanicalwaves. Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increasethe kinetic energy of chemical reactants, and can also elevate theirtemperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM) energy consists of waves ofelectric and magnetic fields. EM energy may also increase the kineticenergy and heat in reaction systems. It also may energize electronicorbitals or vibrational motion in some reactions.

Both acoustic and electromagnetic energy consist of waves. Energy wavesand frequency have some interesting properties, and may be combined insome interesting ways. The manner in which wave energy transfers andcombines, depends largely on the frequency. For example, when two wavesof energy, each having the same amplitude, but one at a frequency of 400Hz and the other at 100 Hz are caused to interact, the waves willcombine and their frequencies will add, to produce a new frequency of500 Hz (i.e., the “sum” frequency). The frequency of the waves will alsosubtract when they combine to produce a frequency of 300 Hz (i.e., the“difference” frequency). All wave energies typically add and subtract inthis manner, and such adding and subtracting is referred to asheterodyning. Common results of heterodyning are familiar to most asharmonics in music. The importance of heterodyning will be discussed ingreater detail later herein.

Another concept important to the invention is wave interactions orinterference. In particular, wave energies are known to interactconstructively and destructively. This phenomena is important indetermining the applied spectral energy pattern. FIGS. 1 a-1 c show twodifferent incident sine waves 1 (FIG. 1 a) and 2 (FIG. 1 b) whichcorrespond to two different spectral energy patterns having twodifferent wavelengths λ₁ and λ₂ (and thus different frequencies) whichcould be applied to a reaction system. Assume arguendo that the energypattern of FIG. 1 a corresponds to an electromagnetic spectral patternand that FIG. 1 b corresponds to one spectral environmental reactioncondition. Each of the sine waves 1 and 2 has a different differentialequation which describes its individual motion. However, when the sinewaves are combined into the resultant additive wave 1+2 (FIG. 1 c), theresulting complex differential equation, which describes the totality ofthe combined energies (i.e., the applied spectral energy pattern)actually results in certain of the input energies being high (i.e.,constructive interference shown by a higher amplitude) at certain pointsin time, as well as being low (i.e., destructive interference shown by alower amplitude) at certain points in time.

Specifically, the portions “X” represent areas where the electromagneticspectral pattern of wave 1 has constructively interfered with thespectral environmental reaction condition wave 2, whereas the portions“Y” represent areas where the two waves 1 and 2 have destructivelyinterfered. Depending upon whether the portions “X” corresponds todesirable or undesirable wavelengths, frequencies or energies (e.g.,causing the applied spectral energy pattern to have positive or negativeinteractions with, for example, one or more participants and/orcomponents in the reaction system), then the portions “X” could enhancea positive effect in the reaction system or could enhance a negativeeffect in the reaction system. Similarly, depending on whether theportions “Y” correspond to desirable or undesirable wavelengths,frequencies, or energies, then the portions “Y” may correspond to theeffective loss of either a positive or negative effect.

It should be clear from this particular analysis that constructiveinterferences (i.e., the points “X”) could, for example, maximize bothpositive and negative effects in a reaction system. Accordingly, thissimplified example shows that by combining, for example, certainfrequencies from a spectral pattern with one or more other frequenciesfrom, for example, at least one spectral environmental reactioncondition, that the applied spectral energy pattern that is actuallyapplied to the reaction system can be a combination of constructive anddestructive interference(s). Accordingly, these factors should also betaken into account when choosing appropriate spectral energy patternsthat are to be applied to a reaction system. In this regard, it is notedthat in practice many desirable incident wavelengths can be applied to areaction system. Moreover, it should also be clear that wave interactioneffects include, but are not limited to, heterodyning, direct resonance,indirect resonance, additive waves, subtractive waves, constructive ordestructive interference, etc. Further, as discussed in detail laterherein, additional effects such as electric effects and/or magneticfield effects can also influence spectral energy patterns (e.g.,spectral patterns).

II. Spectral Catalysts and Spectroscopy

A wide variety of reactions can be advantageously affected and directedwith the assistance of a spectral energy catalyst having a specificspectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral pattern or electromagneticpattern) which transfers a predetermined quanta of targeted energy toinitiate, control and/or promote desirable reaction pathways and/ordesirable reaction rates within a reaction system. This sectiondiscusses spectral catalysts in more detail and explains varioustechniques for using spectral catalysts in reaction systems. Forexample, a spectral catalyst can be used in a reaction system to replaceand provide the additional energy normally supplied by a physicalcatalyst. The spectral catalyst can actually mimic or copy themechanisms of action of a physical catalyst. The spectral catalyst canact as both a positive catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction or asa negative catalyst or poison to decrease the rate of reaction.Furthermore, the spectral catalyst can augment a physical catalyst byutilizing both a physical catalyst and a spectral catalyst in a reactionsystem. The spectral catalyst can improve the activity of a physicalchemical catalyst. Also, the spectral catalyst can partially replace aspecific quantity or amount of the physical catalyst, thereby reducingthe high cost of physical catalysts in many industrial reactions.

In the present invention, the spectral energy catalyst provides targetedenergy (e.g., electromagnetic radiation comprising a specific frequencyor combination of frequencies), in a sufficient amount for a sufficientduration to initiate and/or promote and/or direct a chemical reaction(e.g., follow a particular reaction pathway). The total combination oftargeted energy applied at any point in time to the reaction system isreferred to as the applied spectral energy pattern. The applied spectralenergy pattern may be comprised of a single spectral catalyst, multiplespectral catalysts and/or other spectral energy catalysts as well. Withthe absorption of targeted energy into a reaction system (e.g.,electromagnetic energy from a spectral catalyst), a reactant may becaused to proceed through one or several reaction pathways including:energy transfer which can, for example, excite electrons to higherenergy states for initiation of chemical reaction, by causingfrequencies to match; ionize or dissociate reactants which mayparticipate in a chemical reaction; stabilize reaction products;energize and/or stabilize intermediates and/or transients and/oractivated complexes that participate in a reaction pathway; and/or causeone or more components in a reaction system to have spectral patternswhich at least partially overlap.

For example, in a simple reaction system, if a chemical reactionprovides for at least one reactant “A” to be converted into at least onereaction product “B”, a physical catalyst “C” may be utilized. Incontrast, a portion of the catalytic spectral energy pattern (e.g., inthis section the catalytic spectral pattern) of the physical catalyst“C” may be applied in the form of, for example, an electromagnetic beamto catalyze the reaction.

Substances A and B=unknown frequencies, and C=30 Hz;

Therefore, Substance A+30 HZ→Substance B.

In the present invention, for example, the spectral pattern (e.g.,electromagnetic spectral pattern) of the physical catalyst “C” can bedetermined by known methods of spectroscopy. Utilizing spectroscopicinstrumentation, the spectral pattern of the physical catalyst ispreferably determined under conditions approximating those occurring inthe reaction system using the physical catalyst (e.g., spectral energypatterns as well as spectral patterns can be influenced by environmentalreaction conditions, as discussed later herein). Spectroscopy is aprocess in which the energy differences between allowed states of anysystem are measured by determining the frequencies of the correspondingelectromagnetic energy which is either being absorbed or emitted.Spectroscopy in general deals with the interaction of electromagneticradiation with matter. When photons interact with, for example, atoms ormolecules, changes in the properties of atoms and molecules areobserved.

Atoms and molecules are associated with several different types ofmotion. The entire molecule rotates, the bonds vibrate, and even theelectrons move, albeit so rapidly that electron density distributionshave historically been the primary focus of the prior art. Each of thesekinds of motion is quantified. That is, the atom, molecule or ion canexist only in distinct states that correspond to discrete energyamounts. The energy difference between the different quantum statesdepends on the type of motion involved. Thus, the frequency of energyrequired to bring about a transition is different for the differenttypes of motion. That is, each type of motion corresponds to theabsorption of energy in different regions of the electromagneticspectrum and different spectroscopic instrumentation may be required foreach spectral region. The total motion energy of an atom or molecule maybe considered to be at least the sum of its electronic, vibrational androtational energies.

In both emission and absorption spectra, the relation between the energychange in the atom or molecule and the frequency of the electromagneticenergy emitted or absorbed is given by the so-called Bohr frequencycondition:

ΔE=hv

where h is Planck's constant; v is the frequency; and ΔE, is thedifference of energies in the final and initial states.

Electronic spectra are the result of electrons moving from oneelectronic energy level to another in an atom, molecule or ion. Amolecular physical catalyst's spectral pattern includes not onlyelectronic energy transitions but also may involve transitions betweenrotational and vibrational energy levels. As a result, the spectra ofmolecules are much more complicated than those of atoms. The mainchanges observed in the atoms or molecules after interaction withphotons include excitation, ionization and/or rupture of chemical bonds,all of which may be measured and quantified by spectroscopic methodsincluding emission or absorption spectroscopy which give the sameinformation about energy level separation.

In emission spectroscopy, when an atom or molecule is subjected to aflame or an electric discharge, such atoms or molecules may absorbenergy and become “excited.” On their return to their “normal” statethey may emit radiation. Such an emission is the result of a transitionof the atom or molecule from a high energy or “excited” state to one oflower state. The energy lost in the transition is emitted in the form ofelectromagnetic energy. “Excited” atoms usually produce line spectrawhile “excited” molecules tend to produce band spectra.

In absorption spectroscopy, the absorption of nearly monochromaticincident radiation is monitored as it is swept over a range offrequencies. During the absorption process the atoms or molecules passfrom a state of low energy to one of high energy. Energy changesproduced by electromagnetic energy absorption occur only in integralmultiples of a unit amount of energy called a quantum, which ischaracteristic of each absorbing species. Absorption spectra may beclassified into four types: rotational; rotation-vibration; vibrational;and electronic.

The rotational spectrum of a molecule is associated with changes whichoccur in the rotational states of the molecule. The energies of therotational states differ only by a relatively small amount, and hence,the frequency which is necessary to effect a change in the rotationallevels is very low and the wavelength of electromagnetic energy is verylarge. The energy spacing of molecular rotational states depends on bonddistances and angles. Pure rotational spectra are observed in the farinfrared and microwave and radio regions (See Table 1).

Rotation-vibrational spectra are associated with transitions in whichthe vibrational states of the molecule are altered and may beaccompanied by changes in rotational states. Absorption occurs at higherfrequencies or shorter wavelength and usually occurs in the middle ofthe infrared region (See Table 1).

Vibrational spectra from different vibrational energy levels occurbecause of motion of bonds. A stretching vibration involves a change inthe interatomic distance along the axis of the bond between two atoms.Bending vibrations are characterized by a change in the angle betweentwo bonds. The vibrational spectra of a molecule are typically in thenear-infrared range.

Electronic spectra are from transitions between electronic states foratoms and molecules and are accompanied by simultaneous changes in therotational and vibrational states in molecules. Relatively large energydifferences are involved, and hence absorption occurs at rather largefrequencies or relatively short wavelengths. Different electronic statesof atoms or molecules correspond to energies in the infrared,ultraviolet-visible or x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum (seeTable 1).

TABLE 1 Approximate Boundaries Region Name Energy, J WavelengthFrequency, Hz X-ray   2 × 10⁻¹⁴-2 × 10⁻¹⁷ 10-2-10 nm   3 × 10¹⁹-3 × 10¹⁶Vacuum Ultraviolet   2 × 10⁻¹⁷-9.9 × 10⁻¹⁹ 10-200 nm   3 × 10¹⁶-1.5 ×10¹⁵ Near ultraviolet 9.9 × 10⁻¹⁹-5 × 10⁻¹⁹ 200-400 nm 1.5 × 10¹⁵-7.5 ×10¹⁴ Visible   5 × 10⁻¹⁹-2.5 × 10⁻¹⁹ 400-800 nm 7.5 × 10¹⁴-3.8 × 10¹⁴Near Infrared 2.5 × 10⁻¹⁹-6.6 × 10⁻²⁰ 0.8-2.5 um 3.8 × 10¹⁴-1 × 10¹⁴Fundamental 6.6 × 10⁻²⁰-4 × 10⁻²¹ 2.5-50 um   1 × 10¹⁴-6 × 10¹² InfraredFar infrared   4 × 10⁻²¹-6.6 × 10⁻²² 50-300 um   6 × 10¹²-1 × 10¹²Microwave 6.6 × 10⁻²²-4 × 10⁻²⁵ 0.3 mm-0.5 m   1 × 10¹²-6 × 10⁸Radiowave   4 × 10⁻²⁵-6.6 × 10⁻³⁴ 0.5-300 × 10⁶ m   6 × 10⁸-1

Electromagnetic radiation as a form of energy can be absorbed oremitted, and therefore many different types of spectroscopy may be usedin the present invention to determine a desired spectral pattern of aspectral catalyst (e.g., a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst)including, but not limited to, x-ray, ultraviolet, infrared, microwave,atomic absorption, flame emissions, atomic emissions, inductivelycoupled plasma, DC argon plasma, arc-source emission, spark-sourceemission, high-resolution laser, radio, Raman and the like.

In order to study the electronic transitions, the material to be studiedmay need to be heated to a high temperature, such as in a flame, wherethe molecules are atomized and excited. Another very effective way ofatomizing gases is the use of gaseous discharges. When a gas is placedbetween charged electrodes, causing an electrical field, electrons areliberated from the electrodes and from the gas atoms themselves and mayform a plasma or plasma-like conditions. These electrons will collidewith the gas atoms which will be atomized, excited or ionized. By usinghigh frequency fields, it is possible to induce gaseous dischargeswithout using electrodes. By varying the field strength, the excitationenergy can be varied. In the case of a solid material, excitation byelectrical spark or arc can be used. In the spark or arc, the materialto be analyzed is evaporated and the atoms are excited.

The basic scheme of an emission spectrophotometer includes a purifiedsilica cell containing the sample which is to be excited. The radiationof the sample passes through a slit and is separated into a spectrum bymeans of a dispersion element. The spectral pattern can be detected on ascreen, photographic film or by a detector.

An atom will most strongly absorb electromagnetic energy at the samefrequencies it emits. Measurements of absorption are often made so thatelectromagnetic radiation that is emitted from a source passes through awavelength-limiting device, and impinges upon the physical catalystsample that is held in a cell. When a beam of white light passes througha material, selected frequencies from the beam are absorbed. Theelectromagnetic radiation that is not absorbed by the physical catalystpasses through the cell and strikes a detector. When the remaining beamis spread out in a spectrum, the frequencies that were absorbed show upas dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The position ofthese dark lines correspond exactly to the positions of lines in anemission spectrum of the same molecule or atom. Both emission andabsorption spectrophotometers are available through regular commercialchannels.

In 1885, Balmer discovered that hydrogen vibrates and produces energy atfrequencies in the visible light region of the electromagnetic spectrumwhich can be expressed by a simple formula:

1/λ=R(1/2²−1/m²)

when λ is the wavelength of the light, R is Rydberg's constant and m isan integer greater than or equal to 3 (e.g., 3, 4, or 5, etc.).Subsequently, Rydberg discovered that this equation could be adapted toresult in all the wavelengths in the hydrogen spectrum by changing the1/2² to 1/n², as in,

1/λ=R(1/n²−1/m²)

where n is an integer ≧1, and m is an integer ≧n+1. Thus, for everydifferent number n, the result is a series of numbers for wavelength,and the names of various scientists were assigned to each such serieswhich resulted. For instance, when n=2 and m≧3, the energy is in thevisible light spectrum and the series is referred to as the Balmerseries. The Lyman series is in the ultraviolet spectrum with n=1, andthe Paschen series is in the infrared spectrum with n=3.

In the prior art, energy level diagrams were the primary means used todescribe energy levels in the hydrogen atom (see FIGS. 7 a and 7 b).

After determining the electromagnetic spectral pattern of a desiredcatalyst (e.g., a physical catalyst), the catalytic spectral pattern maybe duplicated, at least partially, and applied to the reaction system.Any generator of one or more frequencies within an acceptableapproximate range of, for example, frequencies of electromagneticradiation may be used in the present invention. When duplicating one ormore frequencies of, for example, a spectral pattern, it is notnecessary to duplicate the frequency exactly. For instance, the effectachieved by a frequency of 1,000 THz, can also be achieved by afrequency very close to it, such as 1,001 or 999 THz. Thus, there willbe a range above and below each exact frequency which will also catalyzea reaction. Specifically, FIG. 12 shows a typical bell-curve “B”distribution of frequencies around the desired frequency f_(o), whereindesirable frequencies can be applied which do not correspond exactly tof_(o), but are close enough to the frequency f_(o) to achieve a desiredeffect, such as those frequencies between and including the frequencieswithin the range of f₁ and f₂. Note that f₁ and f₂ correspond to aboutone half the maximum amplitude, a_(max), of the curve “B”. Thus,whenever the term “exact” or specific reference to “frequency” or thelike is used, it should be understood to have this meaning. In addition,harmonics of spectral catalyst frequencies, both above and below theexact spectral catalyst frequency, will cause sympathetic resonance withthe exact frequency and will catalyze the reaction. Finally, it ispossible to catalyze reactions by duplicating one or more of themechanisms of action of the exact frequency, rather than using the exactfrequency itself. For example, platinum catalyzes the formation of waterfrom hydrogen and oxygen, in part, by energizing the hydroxyl radical atits frequency of roughly 1,060 THz. The reaction can also be catalyzedby energizing the hydroxy radical with its microwave frequency, therebyduplicating platinum's mechanism of action.

An electromagnetic radiation emitting source should have the followingcharacteristics: high intensity of the desired wavelengths; long life;stability; and the ability to emit the electromagnetic energy in apulsed and/or continuous mode.

Irradiating sources can include, but are not limited to, arc lamps, suchas xenon-arc, hydrogen and deuterium, krypton-arc, high-pressuremercury, platinum, silver; plasma arcs, discharge lamps, such as As, Bi,Cd, Cs, Ge, Hg, K, P, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Ti, Tl and Zn; hollow-cathodelamps, either single or multiple elements such as Cu, Pt, and Ag; andsunlight and coherent electromagnetic energy emissions, such as masersand lasers.

Masers are devices which amplify or generate electromagnetic energywaves with great stability and accuracy. Masers operate on the sameprincipal as lasers, but produce electro-magnetic energy in the radioand microwave, rather than visible range of the spectrum. In masers, theelectromagnetic energy is produced by the transition of moleculesbetween rotational energy levels.

Lasers are powerful coherent photon sources that produce a beam ofphotons having the same frequency, phase and direction, that is, a beamof photons that travel exactly alike. Accordingly, for example, thepredetermined spectral pattern of a desired catalyst can be generated bya series or grouping of lasers producing one or more requiredfrequencies.

Any laser capable of emitting the necessary electromagnetic radiationwith a frequency or frequencies of the spectral catalyst may be used inthe present invention. Lasers are available for use throughout much ofthe spectral range. They can be operated in either a continuous or apulsed mode. Lasers that emit lines and lasers that emit a continuum maybe used in the present invention. Line sources may include argon ionlaser, ruby laser, the nitrogen laser, the Nd:YAG laser, the carbondioxide laser, the carbon monoxide laser and the nitrous oxide-carbondioxide laser. In addition to the spectral lines that are emitted bylasers, several other lines are available, by addition or subtraction ina crystal of the frequency emitted by one laser to or from that emittedby another laser. Devices that combine frequencies and may be used inthe present invention include difference frequency generators and sumfrequency mixers. Other lasers that may be used in this inventioninclude, but are not limited to: crystal, such as Al₂O₃ doped with Cr³⁺,Y₃Al₅O₁₂ doped with Nd³⁺; gas, such as He—Ne, Kr-ion; glass, chemical,such as vibrationally excited HCL and HF; dye, such as Rhodamine 6G inmethanol; and semiconductor lasers, such as Ga_(1-x)Al_(x)As. Manymodels can be tuned to various frequency ranges, thereby providingseveral different frequencies from one instrument and applying them tothe reaction system (See Examples in Table 2).

TABLE 2 SEVERAL POPULAR LASERS Medium Type Emitted wavelength, nm Ar Gas334,351.1, 363.8, 454.5, 457.9, 465.8, 472.7, 476.5, 488.0, 496.5,501.7, 514.5, 528.7 Kr Gas 350.7, 356.4, 406.7, 413.1, 415.4, 468.0,476.2, 482.5, 520.8, 530.9, 568.2, 647.1, 676.4, 752.5, 799.3 He—Ne Gas632.8 He—Cd Gas 325.0, 441.6 N₂ Gas 337.1 XeF Gas 351 KrF Gas 248 ArFGas 193 Ruby Solid 693.4 Nd:YAG Solid 266, 355, 532 Pb_(1−x)Cd_(x)SSolid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴ Pb_(1−x)Se_(x) Solid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴Pb_(1−x)Sn_(x)Se Solid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴ Pb_(1−x)Sn_(x)Te Solid 2.9 ×10³-2.6 × 10⁴ Dyes Liquid 217-1000

The coherent light from a single laser or a series of lasers is simplybrought to focus or introduced to the region where a desired reaction isto take place. The light source should be close enough to avoid a “deadspace” in which the light does not reach the reaction system, but farenough apart to assure complete incident-light absorption. Sinceultraviolet sources generate heat, such sources may need to be cooled tomaintain efficient operation. Irradiation time, causing excitation ofthe reaction system, may be individually tailored for each reaction:some short-term for a continuous reaction with large surface exposure tothe light source; or long light-contact time for other systems.

An object of this invention is to provide a spectral energy pattern(e.g., a spectral pattern of electromagnetic energy) to the reactionsystem by applying at least a portion of (or substantially all of) arequired spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst) determinedand calculated by, for example, waveform analysis of the spectralpatterns of, for example, the reactant(s) and the reaction product(s).Accordingly, in the case of a spectral catalyst, a calculatedelectromagnetic pattern will be a spectral pattern or will act as aspectral catalyst to generate a preferred reaction pathway and/orpreferred reaction rate. In basic terms, spectroscopic data foridentified substances can be used to perform a simple waveformcalculation to arrive at, for example, the correct electromagneticenergy frequency, or combination of frequencies, needed to catalyze areaction. In simple terms,

A→B

Substance A=50 Hz, and Substance B=80 Hz

80 Hz-50 Hz=30 Hz:

Therefore, Substance A+30 Hz→Substance B.

The spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral patterns) of both thereactant(s) and reaction product(s) can be determined. In the case of aspectral catalyst, this can be accomplished by the spectroscopic meansmentioned earlier. Once the spectral patterns are determined (e.g.,having a specific frequency or combination of frequencies) within anappropriate set of environmental reaction conditions, the spectralenergy pattern(s) (e.g., electromagnetic spectral pattern(s)) of thespectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) can be determined.Using the spectral energy pattern (s) (e.g., spectral patterns) of thereactant(s) and reaction product(s), a waveform analysis calculation candetermine the energy difference between the reactant(s) and reactionproduct(s) and at least a portion of the calculated spectral energypattern (e.g., electromagnetic spectral pattern) in the form of aspectral energy pattern (e.g., a spectral pattern) of a spectral energycatalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst) can be applied to the reactionsystem to cause the reaction system to follow along the desired reactionpathway. The specific frequency or frequencies of the calculatedspectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral pattern) corresponding to thespectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) will provide thenecessary energy input into the reaction system to affect and initiate adesired reaction pathway.

Performing the waveform analysis calculation to arrive at, for example,the correct electromagnetic energy frequency or frequencies can beaccomplished by using complex algebra, Fourier transformation or WaveletTransforms, which is available through commercial channels under thetrademark Mathematica® and supplied by Wolfram, Co. It should be notedthat only a portion of a calculated spectral energy catalyst (e.g.,spectral catalyst) may be sufficient to catalyze a reaction or asubstantially complete spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectralcatalyst) may be applied depending on the particular circumstances.

In addition, at least a portion of the spectral energy pattern (e.g.,electromagnetic pattern of the required spectral catalyst) may begenerated and applied to the reaction system by, for example, theelectromagnetic radiation emitting sources defined and explainedearlier.

The use of a spectral catalyst may be applicable in many different areasof technology ranging from biochemical processes to industrialreactions.

The specific physical catalysts that may be replaced or augmented in thepresent invention may include any solid, liquid, gas or plasma catalyst,having either homogeneous or heterogeneous catalytic activity. Ahomogeneous physical catalyst is defined as a catalyst whose moleculesare dispersed in the same phase as the reacting chemicals. Aheterogeneous physical catalyst is defined as one whose molecules arenot in the same phase as the reacting chemicals. In addition, enzymeswhich are considered biological catalysts are to be included in thepresent invention. Some examples of physical catalysts that may bereplaced or augmented comprise both elemental and molecular catalysts,including, not limited to, metals, such as silver, platinum, nickel,palladium, rhodium, ruthenium and iron; semiconducting metal oxides andsulfides, such as NiO₂, Zn), MgO, Bi₂O₃/MoO₃, TiO₂, SrTiO₃, CdS, CdSe,SiC, GaP, Wo₂ and MgO₃; copper sulfate; insulating oxides such as Al₂O₃,SiO₂ and MgO; and Ziegler-Natta catalysts, such as titaniumtetrachloride, and trialkyaluminum.

III. Targeting

The frequency and wave nature of energy has been discussed herein.Additionally, Section I entitled “Wave Energies” disclosed the conceptsof various potential interactions between different waves. The generalconcepts of “targeting”, “direct resonance targeting”, “harmonictargeting” and “non-harmonic heterodyne targeting” (all defined termsherein) build on these and other understandings.

Targeting has been defined generally as the application of a spectralenergy provider (e.g., spectral energy catalyst, spectral catalyst,spectral energy pattern, spectral pattern, catalytic spectral energypattern, catalytic spectral pattern, spectral environmental reactionconditions and applied spectral energy pattern) to a reaction system.The application of these types of energies to a reaction system canresult in interaction(s) between the applied spectral energy provider(s)and matter (including all components thereof) in the reaction system.This targeting can result in at least one of direct resonance, harmonicresonance, and/or non-harmonic heterodyne resonance with at least aportion, for example, at least one form of matter in a reaction system.In this invention, targeting should be generally understood as meaningapplying a particular spectral energy provider (e.g., a spectral energypattern) to another entity comprising matter (or any component thereof)to achieve a particular desired result (e.g., desired reaction productand/or desired reaction product at a desired reaction rate). Further,the invention provides techniques for achieving such desirable resultswithout the production of, for example, undesirable transients,intermediates, activated complexes and/or reaction products. In thisregard, some limited prior art techniques exist which have appliedcertain forms of energies (as previously discussed) to reaction systems.These certain forms of energies have been limited to direct resonanceand harmonic resonance with some electronic frequencies and/orvibrational frequencies of some reactants. These limited forms ofenergies used by the prior art were due to the fact that the prior artlacked an adequate understanding of the spectral energy mechanisms andtechniques disclosed herein. Moreover, it has often been the case in theprior art that at least some undesirable intermediate, transient,activated complex and/or reaction product was formed, and/or a less thanoptimum reaction rate for a desired reaction pathway occurred. Thepresent invention overcomes the limitations of the prior art byspecifically targeting, for example, various forms of matter in areaction system (and/or components thereof), with, for example, anapplied spectral energy pattern. Heretofore, such selective targeting ofthe invention was never disclosed or suggested. Specifically, at best,the prior art has been reduced to using random, trial and error orfeedback-type analyses which, although may result in the identificationof a single spectral catalyst frequency, such approach may be verycostly and very time-consuming, not to mention potentiallyunreproducible under a slightly different set of reaction conditions.Such trial and error techniques for determining appropriate catalystsalso have the added drawback, that having once identified a particularcatalyst that works, one is left with no idea of what it means. If onewishes to modify the reaction, including simple reactions using size andshape, another trial and error analysis becomes necessary rather than asimple, quick calculation offered by the techniques of the presentinvention.

Accordingly, whenever use of the word “targeting” is made herein, itshould be understood that targeting does not correspond to undisciplinedenergy bands being applied to a reaction system; but rather to welldefined, targeted, applied spectral energy patterns, each of which has aparticular desirable purpose in, for example, a reaction pathway toachieve a desired result and/or a desired result at a desired reactionrate.

IV. Environmental Reaction Conditions

Environmental reaction conditions are important to understand becausethey can influence, positively or negatively, reaction pathways in areaction system. Traditional environmental reaction conditions includetemperature, pressure, surface area of catalysts, catalyst size andshape, solvents, support materials, poisons, promoters, concentrations,electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magnetic fields, mechanicalforces, acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shape and composition andcombinations thereof, etc.

The following reaction can be used to discuss the effects ofenvironmental reaction conditions which may need to be taken intoaccount in order to cause the reaction to proceed along the simplereaction pathway shown below.

Specifically, in some instances, reactant A will not form into reactionproduct B in the presence of any catalyst C unless the environmentalreaction conditions in the reaction system include certain maximum orminimum conditions of environmental reaction conditions such as pressureand/or temperature. In this regard, many reactions will not occur in thepresence of a physical catalyst unless the environmental reactionsconditions include, for example, an elevated temperature and/or anelevated pressure. In the present invention, such environmental reactionconditions should be taken into consideration when applying a particularspectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst). Many specifics ofthe various environmental reaction conditions are discussed in greaterdetail in the Section herein entitled “Description of the PreferredEmbodiments”.

V. Spectral Environmental Reaction Conditions

If it is known that certain reaction pathways will not occur within areaction system (or not occur at a desirable rate) even when a catalystis present unless, for example, certain minimum or maximum environmentalreaction conditions are present (e.g., the temperature and/or pressureis/are elevated), then an additional frequency or combination offrequencies (i.e., an applied spectral energy pattern) can be applied tothe reaction system. In this regard, spectral environmental reactioncondition(s) can be applied instead of, or to supplement, thoseenvironmental reaction conditions that are naturally present, or need tobe present, in order for a desired reaction pathway and/or desiredreaction rate to be followed. The environmental reaction conditions thatcan be supplemented or replaced with spectral environmental reactionconditions include, for example, temperature, pressure, surface area ofcatalysts, catalyst size and shape, solvents, support materials,poisons, promoters, concentrations, electric fields, magnetic fields,etc.

Still further, a particular frequency or combination of frequenciesand/or fields that can produce one or more spectral environmentalreaction conditions can be combined with one or more spectral energycatalysts and/or spectral catalysts to generate an applied spectralenergy pattern. Accordingly, various considerations can be taken intoaccount for what particular frequency or combination of frequenciesand/or fields may be desirable to combine with (or replace) variousenvironmental reaction conditions, for example.

As an example, in a simple reaction, assume that a first reactant “A”has a frequency or simple spectral pattern of 3 THz and a secondreactant “B” has a frequency or simple spectral pattern of 7 THz. Atroom temperature, no reaction occurs. However, when reactants A and Bare exposed to high temperatures, their frequencies, or simple spectralpatterns, both shift to 5 THz. Since their frequencies match, theytransfer energy and a reaction occurs. By applying a frequency of 2 THz,at room temperature, the applied 2 THz frequency will heterodyne withthe 3 THz pattern to result in, both 1 Thz and 5 THz heterodynedfrequencies; while the applied frequency of 2 THz will heterodyne withthe spectral pattern of 7 THz of reactant “B” and result in heterodynedfrequencies of 5 THz and 9 THz in reactant “B”. Thus, the heterodynedfrequencies of 5 THz are generated at room temperature in each of thereactants “A” and “B”. Accordingly, frequencies in each of the reactantsmatch and thus energy can transfer between the reactants “A” and “B”.When the energy can transfer between such reactants, all desirablereactions along a reaction pathway may be capable of being achieved.However, in certain reactions, only some desirable reactions along areaction pathway are capable of being achieved by the application of asingular frequency. In these instances, additional frequencies and/orfields may need to be applied to result in all desirable steps along areaction pathway being met, including but not limited to, the formationof all required reaction intermediates and/or transients.

Thus, by applying a frequency, or combination of frequencies and/orfields (i.e., creating an applied spectral energy pattern) whichcorresponds to at least one spectral environmental reaction condition,the spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns of, for example,reactant(s), intermediates, transients, catalysts, etc.) can beeffectively modified which may result in broader spectral energypatterns (e.g., broader spectral patterns), in some cases, or narrowerspectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns) in other cases. Suchbroader or narrower spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns)may correspond to a broadening or narrowing of line widths in a spectralenergy pattern (e.g., a spectral pattern). As stated throughout herein,when frequencies match, energy transfers. In this particular embodiment,frequencies can be caused to match by, for example, broadening thespectral pattern of one or more participants in a reaction system. Forexample, as discussed in much greater detail later herein, theapplication of temperature to a reaction system typically causes thebroadening of one or more spectral patterns (e.g., line widthbroadening) of, for example, one or more reactants in the reactionsystem. It is this broadening of spectral patterns that can causespectral patterns of one or more reactants to, for example, overlap. Theoverlapping of the spectral patterns can cause frequencies to match, andthus energy to transfer. When energy is transferred, reactions canoccur. The scope of reactions which occur, include all of thosereactions along any particular reaction pathway. Thus, the broadening ofspectral pattern(s) can result in, for example, formation of reactionproduct, formation of and/or stimulation and/or stabilization ofreaction intermediates and/or transients, catalyst frequencies, poisons,promoters, etc. All of the environmental reaction conditions that arediscussed in detail in the section entitled “Detailed Description of thePreferred Embodiments” can be at least partially stimulated in areaction system by the application of a spectral environmental reactioncondition.

Similarly, spectral patterns can be caused to become non-overlapping bychanging, for example, at least one spectral environmental reactioncondition, and thus changing the applied spectral energy pattern. Inthis instance, energy will not transfer (or the rate at which energytransfers can be reduced) and reactions will not occur (or the rates ofreactions can be slowed).

Spectral environmental reaction conditions can be utilized to startand/or stop reactions in a reaction pathway. Thus, certain reactions canbe started, stopped, slowed and/or speeded up by, for example, applyingdifferent spectral environmental reaction conditions at different timesduring a reaction and/or at different intensities. Thus, spectralenvironmental reaction conditions are capable of influencing, positivelyor negatively, reaction pathways and/or reaction rates in a reactionsystem.

VI. Designing Physical and Spectral Catalysts

Moreover, by utilizing the above techniques to design (e.g., calculateor determine) a desirable spectral energy pattern, such as a desirablespectral pattern for a spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectralcatalyst) rather than applying the spectral energy catalyst (e.g.,spectral catalyst) per se, for example, the designed spectral patterncan be used to design and/or determine an optimum physical and/orspectral catalyst that could be used in the reaction system. Further,the invention may be able to provide a recipe for a physical and/orspectral catalyst for a particular reaction system where no catalystpreviously existed. For example in a reaction where:

A→I→B

where A=reactant, B=product and I=known intermediate, and there is noknown catalyst, either a physical or spectral catalyst could be designedwhich, for example, resonates with the intermediate “I”, therebycatalyzing the reaction.

As a first step, the designed spectral pattern could be compared toknown spectral patterns for existing materials to determine ifsimilarities exist between the designed spectral pattern and spectralpatterns of known materials. If the designed spectral pattern at leastpartially matches against a spectral pattern of a known material, thenit is possible to utilize the known material as a physical catalyst in areaction system. In this regard, it may be desirable to utilize theknown material alone or in combination with a spectral energy catalystand/or a spectral catalyst. Still further, it may be possible to utilizeenvironmental reaction conditions and/or spectral environmental reactionconditions to cause the known material to behave in a manner which iseven closer to the designed energy pattern or spectral pattern. Further,the application of different spectral energy patterns may cause thedesigned catalyst to behave in different manners, such as, for example,encouraging a first reaction pathway with the application of a firstspectral energy pattern and encouraging a second reaction pathway withthe application of a second spectral energy pattern. Likewise, thechanging of one or more environmental reaction conditions could have asimilar effect.

Further, this designed catalyst has applications in all types ofreactions including, but not limited to, chemical (organic andinorganic), biological, physical, energy, etc.

Still further, in certain cases, one or more physical species could beused or combined in a suitable manner, for example, physical mixing orby a chemical reaction, to obtain a physical catalyst materialexhibiting the appropriate designed spectral energy pattern (e.g.,spectral pattern) to achieve a desired reaction pathway. Accordingly, acombination of designed catalyst(s) (e.g., a physical catalyst which isknown or manufactured expressly to function as a physical catalyst),spectral energy catalyst(s) and/or spectral catalyst(s) can result in aresultant energy pattern (e.g., which in this case can be a combinationof physical catalyst(s) and/or spectral catalyst(s)) which is conduciveto forming desired reaction product(s) and/or following a desiredreaction pathway at a desired reaction rate. In this regard, variousline width broadening and/or narrowing of spectral energy pattern(s)and/or spectral pattern(s) may occur when the designed catalyst iscombined with various spectral energy patterns and/or spectral patterns.

It is important to consider the energy interactions between allcomponents of the reaction system when calculating or determining anappropriate designed catalyst. There will be a particular combination ofspecific energy pattern(s) (e.g., electromagnetic energy) that willinteract with the designed catalyst to form an applied spectral energypattern. The particular frequencies, for example, of electromagneticradiation that should be caused to be applied to a reaction systemshould be as many of those frequencies as possible, when interactingwith the frequencies of the designed catalyst, that can result indesirable effects to one or more participants in the reaction system,while eliminating as many of those frequencies as possible which resultin undesirable effects within the reaction system.

VII. Spectral Pharmaceuticals

Many pharmaceutical agents act as catalysts in biochemical reactions.While there are several types of exceptions, the effects of thepreponderance of drugs result from their interaction with functionalmacromolecular components of the host organism. Such interaction altersthe function of the pertinent cellular components and thereby initiatesthe series of biochemical and physiological changes that arecharacteristic of the response to the drug.

A drug is usually described by its prominent effect or by the actionthought to be the basis of that effect. However, such descriptionsshould not obscure the fact that no drug produces only a single effect.Morphine is correctly described as an analgesic, but it also suppressesthe cough reflex, causes sedation, respiratory depression, constipation,bronchiolar constriction, release of histamine, antiduresis, and avariety of other side effects. A drug is adequately characterized onlyin terms of its full spectrum of effects and few drugs are sufficientlyselective to be described as specific.

One of the objects of this invention is to provide a more targeted modefor achieving a desired response from a biological system by introducinga spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst) in place of, orto augment, pharmaceutical agents which may mimic the effect ormechanism of action of a given enzyme, and thereby, limit the occurrenceof unwanted side effects commonly associated with pharmaceutical agents.Moreover, certain reactions can be achieved with spectral catalysts thatare not achievable with any specific physical catalyst pharmaceutical.

A first embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves DHEA andmelatonin which are both pharmaceuticals thought to be involved inslowing and/or reversing the aging process. The electromagnetic spectralpattern for DHEA and melatonin could be emitted from light bulbs presentin the home or the workplace. The resultant EM radiation can be absorbeddirectly into the central nervous system via the optic nerves andtracts, producing anti-aging effects at the site of the genesis of theaging phenomenon, namely, the central nervous system and thepineal-hypothalamus-pituitary system.

A second embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves a loweringof LDL cholesterol levels with pharmaceutical spectral patterns emittedby, for example, coils in the mattress of a bed or in a mattress padthat negatively catalyzes HMG CoA reductase. Thus, desirable effects canbe achieved by targeting appropriate biologics with unique spectralpatterns designed to produce a desired reaction product.

A third embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves thetreatment of bacterial, fungal, parasitic, and viral illnesses usingspectral pharmaceuticals. Specifically, by generating the catalyticspectral pattern of known drug catalysts, similar effects to physicaldrug catalysts can be achieved.

Another embodiment of this aspect of the invention provides a treatmentfor asthma which involves the autonomic nervous system playing a keyrole in the control of bronchometer tone both in normal airways and inthose of individuals with bronchospastic disease. The effects of theautonomic nervous system are thought to be mediated through their actionon the stores of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and cyclicguanosine monophosphate (GMP) in bronchial smooth muscle cells. Further,acetylchlorine, or stimulation by the vagus nerve, is thought to providean increase in the amounts of cyclic GMP relative to cyclic AMP, leadingto smooth muscle contraction and asthma attacks. Conversely, an increasewithin bronchial smooth muscle cells in the levels of cyclic AMPrelative to cyclic GMP leads to relaxation of the bronchial muscles andthus provides a treatment for asthma. The enzyme, adenylate cyclase,catalyses the formation of cyclic AMP. Accordingly, by applying (e.g. apendant worn around the neck) the catalytic spectral pattern foradenylate cyclase, relief from asthma could be achieved.

Some of the most amazing physical catalysts are enzymes which catalyzethe multitudinous reactions in living organisms. Of all the intricateprocesses that have evolved in living systems, none are more striking ormore essential than enzyme catalysis. The amazing fact about enzymes isthat not only can they increase the rate of biochemical reactions byfactors ranging from 10⁶ to 10¹², but they are also highly specific. Anenzyme acts only on certain molecules while leaving the rest of thesystem unaffected. Some enzymes have been found to have a high degree ofspecificity while others can catalyze a number of reactions. If abiological reaction can be catalyzed by only one enzyme, then the lossof activity or reduced activity of that enzyme could greatly inhibit thespecific reaction and could be detrimental to a living organism. If thissituation occurs, a catalytic spectral energy pattern could bedetermined for the exact enzyme or mechanism, then genetic deficienciescould be augmented by providing the spectral energy catalyst to replacethe enzyme.

VIII. Objects of the Invention

All of the above information disclosing the invention should provide acomprehensive understanding of the main aspects of the invention.However, in order to understand the invention further, the inventionshall now be discussed in terms of some of the representative objects orgoals to be achieved.

1. One object of this invention is to control or direct a reactionpathway in a reaction system by applying a spectral energy pattern inthe form of a spectral catalyst having at least one electromagneticenergy frequency which may initiate, activate, and/or affect at leastone of the participants involved in the reaction system.

2. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selectiveand economical process for replacing a known physical catalyst in areaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to the reaction system at least a portion of the catalyticspectral pattern.

3. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to augment aphysical catalyst in a reaction system with its own catalytic spectralpattern comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst; and

duplicating at least one frequency of the spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst with at least one electromagnetic energy emittersource to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to the reaction system at least one frequency of the catalyticspectral pattern at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficient durationto catalyze the formation of reaction product(s) in the reaction system.

4. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selectiveand economical process for replacing a known physical catalyst in areaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to the reaction system at least a portion of the catalyticspectral pattern; and,

applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern which forms anapplied spectral energy pattern when combined with said catalyticspectral pattern.

5. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to replace aphysical catalyst in a reaction system comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst;

duplicating at least one frequency of the electromagnetic spectralpattern of the physical catalyst with at least one electromagneticenergy emitter source to form a catalytic spectral pattern;

applying to the reaction system at least one frequency of the catalyticspectral pattern; and

applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern to form anapplied spectral energy pattern, said applied spectral energy patternbeing applied at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration tocatalyze the formation of at least one reaction product in the reactionsystem.

6. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a reaction system with a spectral catalyst by augmenting aphysical catalyst comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst) with at least one electromagnetic energy emittersource to form a catalytic spectral pattern;

applying to the reaction system, (e.g., irradiating) at least a portionof the catalytic spectral pattern (e.g., an electromagnetic spectralpattern having a frequency range of from about radio frequency to aboutultraviolet frequency) at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficientduration to catalyze the reaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applyingsaid catalytic spectral pattern to the reaction system.

7. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst byaugmenting a physical catalyst comprising the steps of:

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze the reaction system;

introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applyingthe spectral energy catalyst to the reaction system.

8. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a reaction system with a spectral catalyst and a spectralenergy catalyst by augmenting a physical catalyst comprising the stepsof:

applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity andfor a sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze the reactionsystem;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze thereaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applyingthe spectral catalyst and/or the spectral energy catalyst to thereaction system. Moreover, the spectral catalyst and spectral energycatalyst may be applied simultaneously to form an applied spectralenergy pattern or they may be applied sequentially either at the sametime or at different times from when the physical catalyst is introducedinto the reaction system.

9. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a reaction system with a spectral catalyst and a spectralenergy catalyst and a spectral environmental reaction condition, with orwithout a physical catalyst, comprising the steps of:

applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity andfor a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;

applying at last one spectral environmental reaction condition at asufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze areaction pathway, whereby when any of said at least one spectralcatalyst, said at least one spectral energy catalyst and/or at least onespectral environmental reaction condition are applied at the same time,they form an applied spectral energy pattern; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applyingany one of, or any combination of, the spectral catalyst and/or thespectral energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmental reactioncondition to the reaction system. Likewise, the spectral catalyst and/orthe spectral energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmental reactioncondition can be provided sequentially or continuously.

10. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand direct a reaction system with an applied spectral energy pattern anda spectral energy catalyst comprising the steps of:

applying at least one applied spectral energy pattern at a sufficientintensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze the reaction system,whereby said at least one applied spectral energy pattern comprises atleast two members selected from the group consisting of catalyticspectral energy pattern, catalytic spectral pattern, spectral catalyst,spectral energy catalyst, spectral energy pattern, spectralenvironmental reaction condition and spectral pattern; and

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst to the reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the applied spectralenergy pattern into the reaction system before, and/or during, and/orafter applying the spectral energy catalyst to the reaction system.Moreover, the spectral energy catalyst and the applied spectral energypattern can be provided sequentially or continuously. If appliedcontinuously, a new applied spectral energy pattern is formed.

11. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand direct a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst comprisingthe steps of:

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for startingreactant(s) in said reaction system;

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for reactionproduct(s) in said reaction system;

calculating an additive spectral energy pattern (e.g., at least oneelectromagnetic frequency) from said reactant(s) and reaction product(s)spectral energy patterns to determine a required spectral energycatalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst);

generating at least a portion of the required spectral energy catalyst(e.g., at least one electromagnetic frequency of the required spectralcatalyst); and

applying to the reaction system (e.g., irradiating with electromagneticenergy) said at least a portion of the required spectral energy catalyst(e.g., spectral catalyst) to form desired reaction product(s).

12. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect anddirect a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst comprising thesteps of:

targeting at least one participant in said reaction system with at leastone spectral energy catalyst to cause the formation and/or stimulationand/or stabilization of at least one transient and/or at least oneintermediate to result in desired reaction product(s).

13. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy pattern to result inat least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy pattern for a sufficient time andat a sufficient intensity to cause the formation and/or stimulationand/or stabilization of at least one transient and/or at least oneintermediate to result in desired reaction product(s) at a desiredreaction rate.

14. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect anddirect a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst and at leastone of the spectral environmental reaction condition comprising thesteps of:

applying at least one applied spectral energy catalyst to at least oneparticipant in said reaction system; and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition to saidreaction system to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/orstabilization of at least one transient and/or at least one intermediateto permit desired reaction product(s) to form.

15. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst to resultin at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one frequency (e.g., electromagnetic) whichheterodynes with at least one reactant frequency to cause the formationof and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transientand/or at least one intermediate to result in desired reactionproduct(s).

16. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with at least one spectral energy patternresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying a sufficient number of frequencies (e.g., electromagnetic)and/or fields (e.g., electric and/or magnetic) to result in an appliedspectral energy pattern which stimulates all transients and/orintermediates required in a reaction pathway to result in desiredreaction product(s).

17. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst resultingin at least one reaction product comprising:

targeting at least one participant in said reaction system with at leastone frequency and/or field to form, indirectly, at least one transientand/or at least one intermediate, whereby formation of said at least onetransient and/or at least one intermediate results in the formation ofan additional at least one transient and/or at least one additionalintermediate.

18. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst resultingin at least one reaction product comprising:

targeting at least one spectral energy catalyst to at least oneparticipant in said reaction system to form indirectly at least onetransient and/or at least one intermediate, whereby formation of said atleast one transient and/or at least one intermediate results in theformation of an additional at least one transient and/or at least oneadditional intermediate.

19. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a reaction system along a desired reaction pathway comprising:

applying at least one targeting approach selected from the group ofapproaches consisting of direct resonance targeting, harmonic targetingand non-harmonic heterodyne targeting.

In this regard, these targeting approaches can cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/orat least one intermediate to result in desired reaction product(s).

20. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system comprising:

applying at least one frequency to at least one participant and/or atleast one component in said reaction system to cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/orat least one intermediate to result in desired reaction product(s),whereby said at least one frequency comprises at least one frequencyselected from the group consisting of direct resonance frequencies,harmonic resonance frequencies, non-harmonic heterodyne resonancefrequencies, electronic frequencies, vibrational frequencies, rotationalfrequencies, rotational-vibrational frequencies, fine splittingfrequencies, hyperfine splitting frequencies, electric field splittingfrequencies, magnetic field splitting frequencies, cyclotron resonancefrequencies, orbital frequencies and nuclear frequencies.

In this regard, the applied frequencies can include any desirablefrequency or combination of frequencies which resonates directly,harmonically or by a non-harmonic heterodyne technique, with at leastone participant and/or at least one component in said reaction system.

21. It is another object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a reaction system along with a desired reaction pathway with aspectral energy pattern comprising:

applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause the spectralenergy pattern (e.g., spectral pattern) of at least one participantand/or at least one component in said reaction system to at leastpartially overlap with the spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectralpattern) of at least one other participant and/or at least one othercomponent in said reaction system to permit the transfer of energybetween said at least two participants and/or components.

22. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy pattern resulting inat least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy pattern to cause the spectralenergy pattern of at least one participant and/or component in saidreaction system to at least partially overlap with a spectral energypattern of at least one other participant and/or component in saidreaction system to permit the transfer of energy between the at leasttwo participants and/or components, thereby causing the formation ofsaid at least one reaction product.

23. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst resultingin at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause spectral energypattern (e.g., spectral pattern) broadening of at least one participant(e.g., at least one reactant) and/or component in said reaction systemto cause a transfer of energy to occur resulting in transformation(e.g., chemically, physically, phase or otherwise) of at least oneparticipant and/or at least one component in said reaction system.

In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction productwhich is of a different chemical composition and/or different physicalor crystalline composition and/or phases than any of the chemical and/orphysical or crystalline compositions and/or phases of any startingreactant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion of areactant into a reaction product.

24. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst resultingin at least one reaction product comprising:

applying an applied spectral energy pattern to cause spectral energypattern (e.g., spectral pattern) broadening of at least one participant(e.g., at least one reactant) and/or component in said reaction systemto cause a transfer of energy to occur resulting in transformation(e.g., chemically, physically, phase or otherwise) of at least oneparticipant and/or at least one component in said reaction system.

In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction productwhich is of a different chemical composition and/or different physicalor crystalline composition and/or phase than any of the chemical and/orphysical or crystalline compositions and/or phases of any startingreactant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion of areactant into a reaction product.

25. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcontrolling a reaction and/or directing a reaction pathway by utilizingat least one spectral environmental reaction condition, comprising:

forming a reaction system; and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition todirect said reaction system along a desired reaction pathway.

In this regard, the applied spectral environmental reaction conditioncan be used alone or in combination with other environmental reactionconditions to achieve desired results. Further, additional spectralenergy patterns may also be applied, simultaneously and/or continuouslywith said spectral environmental reaction condition.

26. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for designinga catalyst where no catalyst previously existed (e.g., a physicalcatalyst and/or spectral energy catalyst), to be used in a reactionsystem, comprising:

determining a required spectral pattern to obtain a desired reactionand/or desired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate; and

designing a catalyst (e.g., material or combination of materials, and/orspectral energy catalysts) that exhibit(s) a spectral pattern thatapproximates the required spectral pattern.

In this regard, the designed catalyst material may comprise be aphysical admixing of one or more materials and/or more materials thathave been combined by an appropriate reaction, such as a chemicalreaction. The designed material may be enhanced in function by one ormore spectral energy patterns that may also be applied to the reactionsystem. Moreover, the application of different spectral energy patternsmay cause the designed material to behave in different manners, such as,for example, encouraging a first reaction pathway with the applicationof a first spectral energy pattern and encouraging a second reactionpathway with the application of a second spectral energy pattern.Likewise, the changing of one or more environmental reaction conditionscould have a similar effect.

Further, this designed material has applications in all types ofreactions including, but not limited to, chemical (organic andinorganic), biological, physical, etc.

While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation ofoperation, it is believed that when frequencies match, energy transfers.The transfer of energy can be a sharing of energy between two entitiesand, for example, a transfer of energy from one entity into anotherentity. The entities may both be, for example, matter, or one entity maybe matter and the other energy (e.g. energy may be a spectral energypattern such as electromagnetic frequencies, and/or an electric fieldand/or a magnetic field).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1 a and 1 b show a graphic representation of an acoustic orelectromagnetic wave.

FIG. 1 c shows the combination wave which results from the combining ofthe waves in FIG. 1 a and FIG. 1 b.

FIGS. 2 a and 2 b show waves of different amplitudes but the samefrequency. FIG. 2 a shows a low amplitude wave and FIG. 2 b shows a highamplitude wave.

FIGS. 3 a and 3 b show frequency diagrams. FIG. 3 a shows a time vs.amplitude plot and FIG. 3 b shows a frequency vs. amplitude plot.

FIG. 4 shows a specific example of a heterodyne progression.

FIG. 5 shows a graphical example of the heterodyned series from FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 shows fractal diagrams.

FIGS. 7 a and 7 b show hydrogen energy level diagrams.

FIGS. 8 a-8 c show three different simple reaction profiles.

FIGS. 9 a and 9 b show fine frequency diagram curves for hydrogen.

FIG. 10 shows various frequencies and intensities for hydrogen.

FIGS. 11 a and 11 b show two light amplification diagrams withstimulated emission/population inversions.

FIG. 12 shows a resonance curve where the resonance frequency is f_(o),an upper frequency=f₂ and a lower frequency=f₁, wherein f₁ and f₂ are atabout 50% of the amplitude of f_(o).

FIGS. 13 a and 13 b show two different resonance curves having differentquality factors. FIG. 13 a shows a narrow resonance curve with a high Qand FIG. 13 b shows a broad resonance curve with a low Q.

FIG. 14 shows two different energy transfer curves at fundamentalresonance frequencies (curve A) and a harmonic frequency (curve B).

FIGS. 15 a-c show how a spectral pattern varies at three differenttemperatures. FIG. 15 a is at a low temperature, FIG. 15 b is at amoderate temperature and FIG. 15 c is at a high temperature.

FIG. 16 is spectral curve showing a line width which corresponds tof₂−f₁.

FIGS. 17 a and 17 b show two amplitude vs. frequency curves. FIG. 17 ashows distinct spectral curves at low temperature; and FIG. 17 b showsoverlapping of spectral curves at a higher temperature.

FIG. 18 a shows the influence of temperature on the resolution ofinfrared absorption spectra; FIG. 18 b shows blackbody radiation; andFIG. 18 c shows curves A and C at low temperature, and broadened curvesA and C* at higher temperature, with C* also shifted.

FIG. 19 shows spectral patterns which exhibit the effect of pressurebroadening on the compound NH₃.

FIG. 20 shows the theoretical shape of pressure-broadened lines at threedifferent pressures for a single compound.

FIGS. 21 a and 21 b are two graphs which show experimental confirmationof changes in spectral patterns at increased pressures. FIG. 21 acorresponds to a spectral pattern representing the absorption of watervapor in air and FIG. 21 b is a spectral pattern which corresponds tothe absorption of NH₃ at one atmosphere pressure.

FIG. 22 a shows a representation of radiation from a single atom andFIG. 22 b shows a representation of radiation from a group of atoms.

FIGS. 23 a-d show four different spectral curves, three of which exhibitself-absorption patterns. FIG. 23 a is a standard spectral curve notshowing any self-absorption; FIG. 23 b shows the shifting of resonantfrequency due to self absorption; FIG. 23 c shows a self-reversalspectral pattern due to self-absorption; and FIG. 23 d shows anattenuation example of a self-reversal spectral pattern.

FIG. 24 a shows an absorption spectra of alcohol and phthalic acid inhexane; FIG. 24 b shows an absorption spectra for the absorption ofiodine in alcohol and carbon tetrachloride; and FIG. 24 c shows theeffect of mixtures of alcohol and benzene on the solute phenylazophenol.

FIG. 25 a shows a tetrahedral unit representation of aluminum oxide andFIG. 25 b shows a representation of a tetrahedral unit for silicondioxide.

FIG. 26 a shows a truncated octahedron crystal structure for aluminum orsilicon combined with oxygen and FIG. 26 b shows a plurality oftruncated octahedrons joined together to represent zeolite. FIG. 26 cshows truncated octahedrons for zeolites “X” and “Y” which are joinedtogether by oxygen bridges.

FIG. 27 is a graph which shows the influence of copper and bismuth onzinc/cadmium line ratios.

FIG. 28 is a graph which shows the influence of magnesium oncopper/aluminum intensity ratio.

FIG. 29 shows the concentration effects on the atomic spectrafrequencies of N-methyl urethane in carbon tetrachloride solutions atthe following concentrations: a) 0.01M; b) 0.03M; c) 0.06M; d) 0.10M; 3)0.15M.

FIG. 30 shows plots corresponding to the emission spectrum of hydrogen.Specifically, FIG. 30 a corresponds to Balmer Series 2 for hydrogen; andFIG. 30 b corresponds to emission spectrum for the 456 THz frequency ofhydrogen.

FIG. 31 corresponds to a high resolution laser saturation spectrum forthe 456 THz frequency of hydrogen.

FIG. 32 shows fine splitting frequencies which exist under a typicalspectral curve.

FIG. 33 corresponds to a diagram of atomic electron levels (n) in finestructure frequencies (α).

FIG. 34 shows fine structures of the n=1 and n=2 levels of a hydrogenatom.

FIG. 35 shows multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels ofcarbon, oxygen and fluorine: 43.5 cm=1.3 THz; 16.4 cm⁻¹=490 GHz; 226.5cm⁻¹=6.77 THz; 158.5 cm⁻¹=4.74 THz; 404 cm⁻¹=12.1 THz.

FIG. 36 shows a vibration band of SF₆ at a wavelength of 10 μm².

FIG. 37 a shows a spectral pattern similar to that shown in FIG. 36,with a particular frequency magnified. FIG. 37 b shows fine structurefrequencies in greater detail for the compound SF₆.

FIG. 38 shows an energy level diagram which corresponds to differentenergy levels for a molecule where rotational corresponds to “J”,vibrational corresponds to “v” and electronic levels correspond to “n”.

FIGS. 39 a and 39 b correspond to pure rotational absorption spectrum ofgaseous hydrogen chloride as recorded with an interferometer; FIG. 39 bshows the same spectrum of FIG. 39 a at a lower resolution (i.e., notshowing any fine frequencies).

FIG. 40 corresponds to the rotational spectrum for hydrogen cyanide. “J”corresponds to the rotational level.

FIG. 41 shows a spectrum corresponding to the additive heterodyne of v₁and v₅ in the spectral band showing the frequency band at A (v₁−v₅),B=v₁−2v₅.

FIG. 42 shows a graphical representation of fine structure spectrumshowing the first four rotational frequencies for CO in the groundstate. The difference (heterodyne) between the molecular fine structurerotational frequencies is 2× the rotational constant B (i.e., f₂−f₁=2B).In this case, B=57.6 GHz (57,635.970 MHz).

FIG. 43 a shows rotational and vibrational frequencies (MHz) for LiF.FIG. 43 b shows differences between rotational and vibrationalfrequencies for LiF.

FIG. 44 shows the rotational transition J=1→2 for the triatomic moleculeOCS. The vibrational state is given by vibrational quantum numbers inbrackets (v₁, v₂, v₃), v₂ have a superscript [l]. In this case, l=1. Asubscript 1 is applied to the lower-frequency component of the l-typedoublet, and 2 to the higher-frequency components. The two lines at(01¹0) and (01¹0) are an l-type doublet, separated by q₁.

FIG. 45 shows the rotation-vibration band and fine structure frequenciesfor SF₆.

FIG. 46 shows a fine structure spectrum for SF₆ from zero to 300 beingmagnified.

FIGS. 47 a and 47 b show the magnification of two curves from finestructure of SF₆ showing hyperfine structure frequencies. Note theregular spacing of the hyperfine structure curves. FIG. 47 a showsmagnification of the curve marked with a single asterisk (*) in FIG. 46and FIG. 47 b shows the magnification of the curved marked with a doubleasterisk (**) in FIG. 46.

FIG. 48 shows an energy level diagram corresponding to the hyperfinesplitting for the hyperfine structure in the n=2 to n=3 transition forhydrogen.

FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine structure in the J=1→2 to rotationaltransition of CH₃I.

FIG. 50 shows the hyperfine structure of the J=1→2 transition for ClCNin the ground vibrational state.

FIG. 51 shows energy level diagrams and hyperfine frequencies for the NOmolecule.

FIG. 52 shows a spectrum corresponding to the hyperfine frequencies forNH₃.

FIG. 53 shows hyperfine structure and doubling of the NH₃ spectrum forrotational level J=3. The upper curves in FIG. 53 show experimentaldata, while the lower curves are derived from theoretical calculations.Frequency increases from left to right in 60 KHz intervals.

FIG. 54 shows a hyperfine structure and doubling of NH₃ spectrum forrotational level J=4. The upper curves in each of FIG. 54 showexperimental data, while the lower curves are derived from theoreticalcalculations. Frequency increases from left to right in 60 KHzintervals.

FIG. 55 shows a Stark effect for potassium. In particular, the schematicdependence of the 4_(s) and 5_(p) energy levels on the electric field.

FIG. 56 shows a graph plotting the deviation from zero-field positionsof the 5p²P_(1/2)→4s²S_(1/2,3/2) transition wavenumbers against thesquare of the electric field.

FIG. 57 shows the frequency components of the J=0→1 rotationaltransition for CH₃Cl, as a function of field strength. Frequency isgiven in megacycles (MHz) and electric field strength (esu cm) is givenas the square of the field E², in esu²/cm².

FIG. 58 shows the theoretical and experimental measurements of Starkeffect in the J=1→2 transition of the molecule OCS. The unalteredabsolute rotational frequency is plotted at zero, and the frequencysplitting and shifting is denoted as MHz higher or lower than theoriginal frequency.

FIG. 59 shows patterns of Stark components for transitions in therotation of an asymmetric top molecule. Specifically, FIG. 59 a showsthe J=4→5 transitions; and FIG. 59 b shows the J=4→4 transitions. Theelectric field is large enough for complete spectral resolution.

FIG. 60 shows the Stark effect for the OCS molecule on the J=1→2transition with applied electric fields at various frequencies. The “a”curve represents the Stark effect with a static DC electric field; the“b” curve represents broadening and blurring of the Stark frequencieswith a 1 KHz electric field; and the “c” curve represents normal Starktype effect with electric field of 1,200 KHz.

FIG. 61 a shows a construction of a Stark waveguide and FIG. 61 b showsa distribution of fields in the Starck waveguide.

FIG. 62 a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium “D” lines; and FIG. 62 bshows the energy level diagram for transitions in the Zeeman effect forsodium “D” lines.

FIG. 63 is a graph which shows the splitting of the ground term of theoxygen atom as a function of magnetic field.

FIG. 64 is a graphic which shows the dependence of the Zeeman effect onmagnetic field strength for the “3P” state of silicon.

FIG. 65 a is a pictorial which shows a normal Zeeman effect and FIG. 65b is a pictorial which shows an anomolous Zeeman effect.

FIG. 66 shows anomalous Zeeman effect for zinc ³P→³S.

FIG. 67 a shows a graphic representation of four Zeeman splittingfrequencies and FIG. 67 b shows a graphic representation of four newheterodyned differences.

FIGS. 68 a and 68 b show graphs of typical Zeeman splitting patterns fortwo different transitions in a paramagnetic molecule.

FIG. 69 shows the frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontally across theTable; and the frequencies of platinum listed vertically on the Table.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In general, thermal energy is used to drive chemical reactions byapplying heat and increasing the temperature. The addition of heatincreases the kinetic (motion) energy of the chemical reactants. Areactant with more kinetic energy moves faster and farther, and is morelikely to take part in a chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise,by stirring and moving the chemicals, increases their kinetic energy andthus their reactivity. The addition of mechanical energy often increasestemperature, by increasing kinetic energy.

Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanicalwaves. Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increasethe kinetic energy of chemical reactants, and can also elevate theirtemperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM) energy consists of waves ofelectric and magnetic fields. EM energy may also increase the kineticenergy and heat in reaction systems. It may energize electronic orbitalsor vibrational motion in some reactions.

Both acoustic and electromagnetic energy may consist of waves. Thenumber of waves in a period of time can be counted. Waves are oftendrawn, as in FIG. 1 a. Usually, time is placed on the horizontal X-axis.The vertical Y-axis shows the strength or intensity of the wave. This isalso called the amplitude. A weak wave will be of weak intensity andwill have low amplitude (see FIG. 2 a). A strong wave will have highamplitude (see FIG. 2 b).

Traditionally, the number of waves per second is counted, to obtain thefrequency.

Frequency=Number of waves/time=Waves/second=Hz.

Another name for “waves per second”, is “hertz” (abbreviated “Hz”).Frequency is drawn on wave diagrams by showing a different number ofwaves in a period of time (see FIG. 3 a which shows waves having afrequency of 2 Hz and 3 Hz). It is also drawn by placing frequencyitself, rather than time, on the X-axis (see FIG. 3 b which shows thesame 2 Hz and 3 Hz waves plotted differently).

Energy waves and frequency have some interesting properties, and mayinteract in some interesting ways. The manner in which wave energiesinteract, depends largely on the frequency. For example, when two wavesof energy interact, each having the same amplitude, but one at afrequency of 400 Hz and the other at 100 Hz, the waves will add theirfrequencies, to produce a new frequency of 500 Hz (i.e., the “sum”frequency). The frequency of the waves will also subtract to produce afrequency of 300 HZ (i.e., the “difference” frequency). All waveenergies typically add and subtract in this manner, and such adding andsubtracting is referred to as heterodyning. Common results ofheterodyning are familiar to most as harmonics in music.

There is a mathematical, as well as musical basis, to the harmonicsproduced by heterodyning. Consider, for example, a continuousprogression of heterodyned frequencies. As discussed above, beginningwith 400 Hz and 100 Hz, the sum frequency is 500 Hz and the differencefrequency is 300 Hz. If these frequencies are further heterodyned (addedand subtracted) then new frequencies of 800 (i.e., 500+300) and 200(i.e., 500-300) are obtained. The further heterodyning of 800 and 200results in 1,000 and 600 Hz as shown in FIG. 4.

A mathematical pattern begins to emerge. Both the sum and the differencecolumns contain alternating series of numbers that double with each setof heterodynes. In the sum column, 400 Hz, 800 Hz, and 1,600 Hz,alternates with 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 2000 Hz. The same sort of doublingphenomenon occurs in the difference column.

Heterodyning of frequencies is the natural process that occurs wheneverwaveform energies interact. Heterodyning results in patterns ofincreasing numbers that are mathematically derived. The number patternsare integer multiples of the original frequencies. These multiples arecalled harmonics. For example, 800 Hz and 1600 Hz are harmonics of 400Hz. In musical terms, 800 Hz is one octave above 400 Hz, and 1600 Hz istwo octaves higher. It is important to understand the mathematicalheterodyne basis for harmonics, which occurs in all waveform energies,and thus in all of nature.

The mathematics of frequencies is very important. Frequency heterodynesincrease mathematically in visual patterns (see FIG. 5). Mathematics hasa name for these visual patterns of FIG. 5. These patterns are calledfractals. A fractal is defined as a mathematical function which producesa series of self-similar patterns or numbers. Fractal patterns havespurred a great deal of interest historically because fractal patternsare found everywhere in nature. Fractals can be found in the patterningof large expanses of coastline, all the way down to microorganisms.Fractals are found in the behavior of organized insects and in thebehavior of fluids. The visual patterns produced by fractals are verydistinct and recognizable. A typical fractal pattern is shown in FIG. 6.

A heterodyne is a mathematical function, governed by mathematicalequations, just like a fractal. A heterodyne also produces self-similarpatterns of numbers, like a fractal. If graphed, a heterodyne seriesproduces the same familiar visual shape and form which is socharacteristic of fractals. It is interesting to compare the heterodyneseries in FIG. 5, with the fractal series in FIG. 6.

Heterodynes are fractals; the conclusion is inescapable. Heterodynes andfractals are both mathematical functions which produce a series ofself-similar patterns or numbers. Wave energies interact in heterodynepatterns. Thus, all wave energies interact as fractal patterns. Once itis understood that the fundamental process of interacting energies isitself a fractal process, it becomes easier to understand why so manycreatures and systems in nature also exhibit fractal patterns. Thefractal processes and patterns of nature are established at afundamental or basic level.

Accordingly, since energy interacts by heterodyning, matter should alsobe capable of interacting by a heterodyning process. All matter whetherin large or small forms, has what is called a natural oscillatoryfrequency. The natural oscillatory frequency (“NOF”) of an object, isthe frequency at which the object prefers to vibrate, once set inmotion. The NOF of an object is related to many factors including size,shape, dimension, and composition. The smaller an object is the smallerthe distance it has to cover when it oscillates back and forth. Thesmaller the distance, the faster it can oscillate, and the higher itsNOF.

For example, consider a wire composed of metal atoms. The wire has anatural oscillatory frequency. The individual metal atoms also haveunique natural oscillatory frequencies. The NOF of the atoms and the NOFof the wire heterodyne by adding and subtracting, just the way energyheterodynes.

NOF_(atom)+NOF_(wire)=Sum Frequency_(atom+wire)

and

NOF_(atom)−NOF_(wire)=Difference Frequency_(atom−wire)

If the wire is stimulated with the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire), thedifference frequency will heterodyne (add) with the NOF_(wire) toproduce NOF_(atom), (natural oscillatory frequency of the atom) and theatom will absorb with the energy, thereby becoming stimulated to ahigher energy level. Cirac and Zoeller reported this phenomenon in 1995,and they used a laser to generate the Difference Frequency.

Difference Frequency_(atom−wire)+NOF_(wire)=NOF_(atom)

Matter heterodynes with matter in a manner similar to the way in whichwave energies heterodyne with other wave energies. This means thatmatter in its various states may also interact in fractal processes.This interaction of matter by fractal processes assists in explainingwhy so many creatures and systems in nature exhibit fractal processesand patterns. Matter, as well as energy, interacts by the mathematicalequations of heterodynes, to produce harmonics and fractal patterns.That is why there are fractals everywhere around us.

Thus, energy heterodynes with energy, and matter heterodynes withmatter. However, perhaps even more important is that matter canheterodyne with energy (and visa versa). In the metal wire discussionabove, the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire) in the experiment by Ciracand Zoeller was provided by a laser which used electromagnetic waveenergy at a frequency equal to the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire). Thematter in the wire, via its natural oscillatory frequency, heterodynedwith the electromagnetic wave energy frequency of the laser to producethe frequency of an individual atom of matter. This shows that energyand matter do heterodyne with each other.

In general, when energy encounters matter, one of three possibilitiesoccur. The energy either bounces off the matter (i.e., is reflectedenergy), passes through the matter (i.e., is transmitted energy), orinteracts and/or combines with the matter (e.g., is absorbed orheterodynes with the matter). If the energy heterodynes with the matter,new frequencies of energy and/or matter will be produced by mathematicalprocesses of sums and differences. If the frequency thus producedmatches an NOF of the matter, the energy will be, at least partially,absorbed, and the matter will be stimulated to, for example, a higherenergy level, (i.e., it possesses more energy). A crucial factor whichdetermines which of these three possibilities will happen is thefrequency of the energy compared to the frequency of the matter. If thefrequencies do not match, the energy will either be reflected, or willpass on through as transmitted energy. If the frequencies of the energyand the matter match either directly (e.g., are close to each other, asdiscussed in greater detail later herein), or match indirectly (e.g.,heterodynes), then the energy is capable of interacting and/or combiningwith the matter.

Another term often used for describing the matching of frequencies isresonance. In this invention, use of the term resonance will typicallymean that frequencies of matter and/or energy match. For example, if thefrequency of energy and the frequency of matter match, the energy andmatter are in resonance and the energy is capable of combining with thematter. Resonance, or frequency matching, is merely an aspect ofheterodyning that permits the coherent transfer and combination ofenergy with matter.

In the example above with the wire and atoms, resonance could have beencreated with the atom, by stimulating the atom with a laser frequencyexactly matching the NOF of the atom. In this case, the atom would beenergized with its own resonant frequency and the energy would betransferred to the atom directly. Alternatively, as was performed in theactual wire/laser experiment, resonance could also have been createdwith the atom by using the heterodyning that naturally occurs betweendiffering frequencies. Thus, the resonant frequency of the atom(NOF_(atom)) can be produced indirectly, as an additive (or subtractive)heterodyned frequency, between the resonant frequency of the wire(NOF_(wire)) and the applied frequency of the laser. Either directresonance, or indirect resonance through heterodyned frequency matching,produces resonance and thus permits the combining of matter and energy.When frequencies match, energy transfers.

Heterodyning produces indirect resonance. Heterodyning also producesharmonics, (i.e., frequencies that are integer multiples of the resonant(NOF) frequency. For example, the music note “A” is approximately 440Hz. If that frequency is doubled to about 880 Hz, the note “A” is heardan octave higher. This first octave is called the first harmonic.Doubling the note or frequency again, from 880 Hz to 1,760 Hz (i.e.,four times the frequency of the original note) results in another “A”,two octaves above the original note. This is called the third harmonic.Every time the frequency is doubled another octave is achieved, so theseare the even integer multiples of the resonant frequency.

In between the first and third harmonic is the second harmonic, which isthree times the original note. Musically, this is not an octave like thefirst and third harmonics. It is an octave and a fifth, equal to thesecond “E” above the original “A”. All of the odd integer multiples arefifths, rather than octaves. Because harmonics are simply multiples ofthe fundamental natural oscillatory frequency, harmonics stimulate theNOF or resonant frequency indirectly. Thus by playing the high “A” at880 Hz on a piano, the string for middle “A” at 440 Hz should also beginto vibrate due to the phenomenon of harmonics.

Matter and energy in chemical reactions respond to harmonics of resonantfrequencies much the way musical instruments do. Thus, the resonantfrequency of the atom (NOF_(atom)) can be stimulated indirectly, usingone or more of its' harmonic frequencies. This is because the harmonicfrequency heterodynes with the resonant frequency of the atom itself(NOF_(atom)). For example, in the wire/atom example above, if the laseris tuned to 800 THz and the atom resonates at 400 THz, heterodyning thetwo frequencies results in:

800 THz−400 THz=400 THz.

The 800 THz (the atom's first harmonic), heterodynes with the resonantfrequency of the atom, to produce the atom's own resonant frequency.Thus the first harmonic indirectly resonates with the atom's NOF, andstimulates the atom's resonant frequency as a first generationheterodyne.

Of course, the two frequencies will also heterodyne in the otherdirection, producing:

800 THz+400 THz=1,200 THz

The 1,200 THz frequency is not the resonant frequency of the atom. Thus,part of the energy of the laser will heterodyne to produce the resonantfrequency of the atom. The other part of the energy of the laserheterodynes to a different frequency, that does not itself stimulate theresonant frequency of the atom. That is why the stimulation of an objectby a harmonic frequency of particular strength of amplitude, istypically less than the stimulation by its' own resonant (NOF) frequencyat the same particular strength.

Although it appears that half the energy of a harmonic is wasted, thatis not necessarily the case. Referring again to the exemplary atomvibrating at 400 THz, exposing the atom to electromagnetic energyvibrating at 800 THz will result in frequencies subtracting and addingas follows:

800 THz−400 THz=400 THz

and

800 THz+400 THz=1,200 THz

The 1,200 THz heterodyne, for which about 50% of the energy appears tobe wasted, will heterodyne with other frequencies also, such as 800 THz.Thus,

1,200 THz−800 THz=400 THz.

Also, the 1,200 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:

1,200 THz−400 THz=800 THz,

thus producing 800 THz, and the 800 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:

800 THz−400 THz=400 THz,

thus producing 400 THz frequency again. When other generations ofheterodynes of the seemingly wasted energy are taken into consideration,the amount of energy transferred by a first harmonic frequency is muchgreater than the previously suggested 50% transfer of energy. There isnot as much energy transferred by this approach when compared to directresonance, but this energy transfer is sufficient to produce a desiredeffect (see FIG. 14).

As stated previously, Ostwald's theories on catalysts and bond formationwere based on the kinetic theories of chemistry from the turn of thecentury. However, it should now be understood that chemical reactionsare interactions of matter, and that matter interacts with other matterthrough resonance and heterodyning of frequencies; and energy can justas easily interact with matter through a similar processes of resonanceand heterodyning. With the advent of spectroscopy (discussed in moredetail elsewhere herein), it is evident that matter produces, forexample, electromagnetic energy at the same or substantially the samefrequencies at which it vibrates. Energy and matter can move about andrecombine with other energy or matter, as long as their frequenciesmatch, because when frequencies match, energy transfers. In manyrespects, both philosophically and mathematically, both matter andenergy can be fundamentally construed as corresponding to frequency.Accordingly, since chemical reactions are recombinations of matterdriven by energy, chemical reactions are in effect, driven just as muchby frequency.

Analysis of a typical chemical reaction should be helpful inunderstanding the normal processes disclosed herein. A representativereaction to examine is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygengases, catalyzed by platinum. Platinum has been known for some time tobe a good hydrogen catalyst, although the reason for this has not beenwell understood.

This reaction is proposed to be a chain reaction, depending on thegeneration and stabilization of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates.The proposed reaction chain is:

Generation of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates are thought to becrucial to this reaction chain. Under normal circumstances, hydrogen andoxygen gas can be mixed together for an indefinite amount of time, andthey will not form water. Whenever the occasional hydrogen moleculesplits apart, the hydrogen atoms do not have adequate energy to bondwith an oxygen molecule to form water. The hydrogen atoms are veryshort-lived as they simply re-bond again to form a hydrogen molecule.Exactly how platinum catalyzes this reaction chain is a mystery to theprior art.

The present invention teaches that an important step to catalyzing thisreaction is the understanding now provided that it is crucial not onlyto generate the intermediates, but also to energize and/or stabilize(i.e., maintain the intermediates for a longer time), so that theintermediates have sufficient energy to, for example, react with othercomponents in the reaction system. In the case of platinum, theintermediates react with the reactants to form product and moreintermediates (i.e., by generating, energizing and stabilizing thehydrogen intermediate, it has sufficient energy to react with themolecular oxygen reactant, forming water and the hydroxy intermediate,instead of falling back into a hydrogen molecule). Moreover, byenergizing and stabilizing the hydroxy intermediates, the hydroxyintermediates can react with more reactant hydrogen molecules, and againwater and more intermediates result from this chain reaction. Thus,generating energizing and/or stabilizing the intermediates, influencesthis reaction pathway. Paralleling nature in this regard would bedesirable (e.g., nature can be paralleled by increasing the energylevels of the intermediates). Specifically, desirable, intermediates canbe energized and/or stabilized by applying at least one appropriateelectromagnetic frequency resonant with the intermediate, therebystimulating the intermediate to a higher energy level. Interestingly,that is what platinum does (e.g., various platinum frequencies resonatewith the intermediates on the reaction pathway for water formation).Moreover, in the process of energizing and stabilizing the reactionintermediates, platinum fosters the generation of more intermediates,which allows the reaction chain to continue, and thus catalyzes thereaction.

As a catalyst, platinum takes advantage of many of the ways thatfrequencies interact with each other. Specifically, frequencies interactand resonate with each other: 1) directly, by matching a frequency; or2) indirectly, by matching a frequency through harmonics or heterodynes.In other words, platinum vibrates at frequencies which both directlymatch the natural oscillatory frequencies of the intermediates, andwhich indirectly match their frequencies, for example, by heterodyningharmonics with the intermediates.

Further, in addition to the specific intermediates of the reactiondiscussed above herein, it should be understood that in this reaction,like in all reactions, various transients or transient states alsoexist. In some cases, transients or transient states may only involvedifferent bond angles between similar chemical species or in other casestransients may involve completely different chemistries altogether. Inany event, it should be understood that numerous transient states existbetween any particular combination of reactant and reaction product.

It should now be understood that physical catalysts produce effects bygenerating, energizing and/or stabilizing all manner of transients, aswell as intermediates. In this regard, FIG. 8 a shows a single reactantand a single product. The point “A” corresponds to the reactant and thepoint “B” corresponds to the reaction product. The point “C” correspondsto an activated complex. Transients correspond to all those points onthe curve between reactant “A” and product “B”, and can also include theactivated complex “C”.

In a more complex reaction which involves formation of at least oneintermediate, the reaction profile looks somewhat different. In thisregard, reference is made to FIG. 8 b, which shows reactant “A”, product“B”, activated complex “C′ and C”, and intermediate “D”. In thisparticular example, the intermediate “D” exists as a minimum in theenergy reaction profile of the reaction, while it is surrounded by theactivated complexes C′ and C″. However, again, in this particularreaction, transients correspond to anything between the reactant “A” andthe reaction product “B”, which in this particular example, includes thetwo activated complexes “C′” and “C″,” as well as the intermediate “D”.In the particular example of hydrogen and oxygen combining to formwater, the reaction profile is closer to that shown in FIG. 8 c. In thisparticular reaction profile, “D′” and “D″” could correspond generally tothe intermediates of the hydrogen atom and hydroxy molecule.

Now, with specific reference to the reaction to form water, bothintermediates are good examples of how platinum produces resonance in anintermediate by directly matching a frequency. Hydroxy intermediatesvibrate strongly at frequencies of 975 THz and 1,060 THz. Platinum alsovibrates at 975 THz and 1,060 THz. By directly matching the frequenciesof the hydroxy intermediates, platinum can cause resonance in hydroxyintermediates, enabling them to be energized, stimulated and/orstabilized long enough to take part in chemical reactions. Similarly,platinum also directly matches frequencies of the hydrogenintermediates. Platinum resonates with about 10 out of about 24 hydrogenfrequencies in its electronic spectrum (see FIG. 69). Specifically, FIG.69 shows the frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontally across theTable and the frequencies of platinum listed vertically on the Table.Thus, by directly resonating with the intermediates in theabove-described reaction, platinum facilitates the generation,energizing, stimulating, and/or stabilizing of the intermediates,thereby catalyzing the desired reaction.

Platinum's interactions with hydrogen are also a good example ofmatching frequencies through heterodyning. It is disclosed herein, andshown clearly in FIG. 69, that many of the platinum frequencies resonateindirectly as harmonics with the hydrogen atom intermediate (e.g.,harmonic heterodynes). Specifically, fifty-six (56) frequencies ofplatinum (i.e., 33% of all its frequencies) are harmonics of nineteen(19) hydrogen frequencies (i.e., 80% of its 24 frequencies). Fourteen(14) platinum frequencies are first harmonics (2×) of seven (7) hydrogenfrequencies. And, twelve (12) platinum frequencies are third harmonics(4×) of four (4) hydrogen frequencies. Thus, the presence of platinumcauses massive indirect harmonic resonance in the hydrogen atom, as wellas significant direct resonance.

Further focus on the individual hydrogen frequencies is even moreinformative. FIGS. 9-10 show a different picture of what hydrogen lookslike when the same information used to make energy level diagrams isplotted as actual frequencies and intensities instead. Specifically, theX-axis shows the frequencies emitted and absorbed by hydrogen, while theY-axis shows the relative intensity for each frequency. The frequenciesare plotted in terahertz (THz, 10¹² Hz) and are rounded to the nearestTHz. The intensities are plotted on a relative scale of 1 to 1,000. Thehighest intensity frequency that hydrogen atoms produce is 2,466 THz.This is the peak of curve Ito the far right in FIG. 9 a. This curve Ishall be referred to as the first curve. Curve I sweeps down and to theright, from 2,466 THz at a relative intensity of 1,000 to 3,237 THz at arelative intensity of only about 15.

The second curve in FIG. 9 a, curve II, starts at 456 THz with arelative intensity of about 300 and sweeps down and to the right. Itends at a frequency of 781 THz with a relative intensity of five (5).Every curve in hydrogen has this same downward sweep to the right.Progressing from right to left in FIG. 9, the curves are numbered Ithrough V; going from high to low frequency and from high to lowintensity.

The hydrogen frequency chart shown in FIG. 10 appears to be much simplerthan the energy level diagrams. It is thus easier to visualize how thefrequencies are organized into the different curves shown in FIG. 9. Infact, there is one curve for each of the series described by Rydberg.Curve “I” contains the frequencies in the Lyman series, originating fromwhat quantum mechanics refers to as the first energy level. The secondcurve from the right, curve “II”, equates to the second energy level,and so on.

The curves in the hydrogen frequency chart of FIG. 9 are composed ofsums and differences (i.e., they are heterodyned). For example, thesmallest curve at the far left, labeled curve “V”, has two frequenciesshown, namely 40 THz and 64 THz, with relative intensities of six (6)and four (4), respectively (see also FIG. 10). The next curve, IV,begins at 74 THz, proceeds to 114 THz and ends with 138 THz. The summedheterodyne calculations are thus:

40+74=114

64+74+138.

The frequencies in curve IV are the sum of the frequencies in curve Vplus the peak intensity frequency in curve IV.

Alternatively, the frequencies in curve IV, minus the frequencies incurve V, yield the peak of curve IV:

114−40=74

138−64=74.

This is not just a coincidental set of sums or differences in curves IVand V. Every curve in hydrogen is the result of adding each frequency inany one curve, with the highest intensity frequency in the next curve.

These hydrogen frequencies are found in both the atom itself, and in theelectromagnetic energy it radiates. The frequencies of the atom and itsenergy, add and subtract in regular fashion. This is heterodyning. Thus,not only matter and energy heterodyne interchangeably, but matterheterodynes its' own energy within itself.

Moreover, the highest intensity frequencies in each curve areheterodynes of heterodynes. For example, the peak frequency in Curve Iof FIG. 9 is 2,466 THz, which is the third harmonic of 616 THz;

4×616 THz=2,466 THz.

Thus, 2,466 THz is the third harmonic of 616 THz (Recall that forheterodyned harmonics, the result is even multiples of the startingfrequency, i.e., for the first harmonic 2× the original frequency andthe third harmonic is 4× the original frequency. Multiplying a frequencyby four (4) is a natural result of the heterodyning process.) Thus,2,466 THz is a fourth generation heterodyne, namely the third harmonicof 616 THz.

The peak of curve II of FIG. 9, a frequency corresponding to 456 THz, isthe third harmonic of 114 THz in curve IV. The peak of curve III,corresponding to a frequency of 160 THz, is the third harmonic of 40 THzin curve V. The peaks of the curves shown in FIG. 9 are not onlyheterodynes between the curves but are also harmonics of individualfrequencies which are themselves heterodynes. The whole hydrogenspectrum turns out to be an incestuously heterodyned set of frequenciesand harmonics.

Theoretically, this heterodyne process could go on forever. For example,if 40 is the peak of a curve, that means the peak is four (4) times alower number, and it also means that the peak of the previous curve is24 (64−40=24). It is possible to mathematically extrapolate backwardsand downwards this way to derive lower and lower frequencies. Peaks ofsuccessive curves to the left are 24.2382, 15.732, and 10.786 THz, allgenerated from the heterodyne process. These frequencies are in completeagreement with the Rydberg formula for energy levels 6, 7 and 8,respectively. Not much attention has historically been given by theprior art to these lower frequencies and their heterodyning.

This invention teaches that the heterodyned frequency curves amplify thevibrations and energy of hydrogen. A low intensity frequency on curve IVor V has a very high intensity by the time it is heterodyned out tocurve I. In many respects, the hydrogen atom is just one big energyamplification system. Moving from low frequencies to high frequencies,(i.e., from curve V to curve I in FIG. 9), the intensities increasedramatically. By stimulating hydrogen with 2,466 THz at an intensity of1,000, the result will be 2,466 THz at 1,000 intensity. However, ifhydrogen is stimulated with 40 THz at an intensity of 1,000, by the timeit is amplified back out to curve I of FIG. 9, the result will be 2,466THz at an intensity of 167,000. This heterodyning turns out to have adirect bearing on platinum, and on how platinum interacts with hydrogen.It all has to do with hydrogen being an energy amplification system.That is why the lower frequency curves are perceived as being higherenergy levels. By understanding this process, the low frequencies of lowintensity suddenly become potentially very significant.

Platinum resonates with most, if not all, of the hydrogen frequencieswith one notable exception, the highest intensity curve at the far rightin the frequency chart of FIG. 9 (i.e., curve I) representing energylevel 1, and beginning with 2,466 THz. Platinum does not appear toresonate significantly with the ground state transition of the hydrogenatom. However, it does resonate with multiple upper energy levels oflower frequencies.

With this information, one ongoing mystery can be solved. Ever sincelasers were developed, the prior art chemists believed that there had tobe some way to catalyze a reaction using lasers. Standard approachesinvolved using the single highest intensity frequency of an atom (suchas 2,466 THz of hydrogen) because it was apparently believed that thehighest intensity frequency would result in the highest reactivity. Thisapproach was taken due to considering only the energy level diagrams.Accordingly, prior art lasers are typically tuned to a ground statetransition frequency. This use of lasers in the prior art has beenminimally successful for catalyzing chemical reactions. It is nowunderstood why this approach was not successful. Platinum, thequintessential hydrogen catalyst, does not resonate with the groundstate transition of hydrogen. It resonates with the upper energy levelfrequencies, in fact, many of the upper level frequencies. Withoutwishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation, this isprobably why platinum is such a good hydrogen catalyst.

Platinum resonates with multiple frequencies from the upper energylevels (i.e., the lower frequencies). There is a name given to theprocess of stimulating many upper energy levels, it is called a laser.

Einstein essentially worked out the statistics on lasers at the turn ofthe century when atoms at the ground energy level (E₁) are resonated toan excited energy level (E₂). Refer to the number of atoms in the groundstate as “N₁” and the number of excited atoms as “N₂”, with the total“N_(total)”. Since there are only two possible states that atoms canoccupy:

N _(total) =N ₁ +N ₂.

After all the mathematics are performed, the relationship which evolvesis:

$\frac{N_{2}}{N_{total}} = {\frac{N_{2}}{N_{1} + N_{2}} < \frac{1}{2}}$

In a two level system, it is predicted that there will never by morethan 50% of the atoms in the higher energy level, E₂, at the same time.

If, however, the same group of atoms is energized at three (3) or moreenergy levels (i.e., a multi-level system), it is possible to obtainmore than 50% of the atoms energized above the first level. By referringto the ground and energized levels as E₁, E₂, and E₃, respectively, andthe numbers of atoms as N_(total), N₁, N₂, and N₃, under certaincircumstances, the number of atoms at an elevated energy level (N₃) canbe more than the number at a lower energy level (N₂). When this happens,it is referred to as a “population inversion”. Population inversionmeans that more of the atoms are at higher energy levels that at thelower energy levels.

Population inversion in lasers is important. Population inversion causesamplification of light energy. For example, in a two-level system, onephoton in results in one photon out. In a system with three (3) or moreenergy levels and population inversion, one photon in may result in 5,10, or 15 photons out (see FIG. 11). The amount of photons out dependson the number of levels and just how energized each level becomes. Alllasers are based on this simple concept of producing a populationinversion in a group of atoms, by creating a multi-level energizedsystem among the atoms. Lasers are simply devices to amplifyelectromagnetic wave energy (i.e., light) Laser is actually anabbreviation for Light Amplification System for Emitting Radiation.

By referring back to the interactions discussed herein between platinumand hydrogen, platinum energizes 19 upper level frequencies in hydrogen(i.e., 80% of the total hydrogen frequencies). But only threefrequencies are needed for a population inversion. Hydrogen isstimulated at 19. This is a clearly multi-level system. Moreover,consider that seventy platinum frequencies do the stimulating. Onaverage, every hydrogen frequency involved is stimulated by three orfour (i.e., 70/19) different platinum frequencies; both directlyresonant frequencies and/or indirectly resonant harmonic frequencies.Platinum provides ample stimulus, atom per atom, to produce a populationinversion in hydrogen. Finally, consider the fact that every time astimulated hydrogen atom emits some electromagnetic energy, that energyis of a frequency that matches and stimulates platinum in return.

Platinum and hydrogen both resonate with each other in their respectivemulti-level systems. Together, platinum and hydrogen form an atomicscale laser (i.e., an energy amplification system on the atomic level).In so doing, platinum and hydrogen amplify the energies that are neededto stabilize both the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates, thuscatalyzing the reaction pathway for the formation of water. Platinum issuch a good hydrogen catalyst because it forms a lasing system withhydrogen on the atomic level, thereby amplifying their respectiveenergies.

Further, this reaction hints that in order to catalyze a reaction systemand/or control the reaction pathway in a reaction system it is possiblefor only a single transient and/or intermediate to be formed and/orenergized by an applied frequency (e.g., a spectral catalyst) and thatby forming and/or stimulating at least one transient and/or at least oneintermediate that is required to follow for a desired reaction pathway(e.g., either a complex reaction or a simple reaction), then afrequency, or combination of frequencies, which result in such formationor stimulation of only one of such required transients and/orintermediates may be all that is required. Accordingly, the presentinvention recognizes that in some reaction systems, by determining atleast one required transient and/or intermediate, and by applying atleast one frequency which generates, energizes and/or stabilizes said atleast one transient and/or intermediate, then all other transientsand/or intermediates required for a reaction to proceed down a desiredreaction pathway may be self-generated. However, in some cases, thereaction could be increased in rate by applying the appropriatefrequency or spectral energy pattern, which directly stimulates alltransients and/or intermediates that are required in order for areaction to proceed down a desired reaction pathway. Accordingly,depending upon the particulars of any reaction system, it may bedesirable for a variety of reasons, including equipment, environmentalreaction conditions, etc., to provide or apply a frequency or spectralenergy pattern which results in the formation and/or stimulation and/orstabilization of any required transients and/or intermediates. Thus, inorder to determine an appropriate frequency or spectral energy pattern,it is first desirable to determine which transients and/or intermediatesare present in any reaction pathway.

Specifically, once all known required transients and/or intermediatesare determined, then, one can determine experimentally or empiricallywhich transients and/or intermediates are essential to a reactionpathway and then determine, which transients and or intermediates can beself-generated by the stimulation and/or formation of a differenttransient or intermediate. Once such determinations are made,appropriate spectral energies (e.g., electromagnetic frequencies) canthen be applied to the reaction system to obtain the desirable reactionproduct and/or desirable reaction pathway.

It is known that an atom of platinum interacts with an atom of hydrogenand/or a hydroxy intermediate. And, that is exactly what modernchemistry has taught for the last one hundred years, based on Ostwald'stheory of catalysis. However, the prior art teaches that catalysts mustparticipate in the reaction by binding to the reactants, in other words,the prior art teaches a matter: matter bonding interaction is requiredfor physical catalysts. As previously stated, these reactions followthese steps:

1. Reactant diffusion to the catalyst site;

2. Bonding of reactant to the catalyst site;

3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;

4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and

5. Diffusion of the product away from the catalyst site.

However, according to the present invention, for example, energy: energyfrequencies can interact as well as energy: matter frequencies.Moreover, matter radiates energy, with the energy frequencies beingsubstantially the same as the matter frequencies. So platinum vibratesat the frequency of 1,060 THz, and it also radiates electromagneticenergy at 1,060 THz. Thus, according to the present invention, thedistinction between energy frequencies and matter frequencies starts tolook less important.

Resonance can be produced in, for example, the reaction intermediates bypermitting them to come into contact with additional matter vibrating atsubstantially the same frequencies, such as those frequencies of aplatinum atom (e.g., platinum stimulating the reaction between hydrogenand oxygen to form water). Alternatively, according to the presentinvention, resonance can be produced in the intermediates by introducingelectromagnetic energy corresponding to one or more platinum energies,which also vibrate at the same frequencies, thus at least partiallymimicking (an additional mechanism of platinum is resonance with the H₂molecule, a pathway reactant) the mechanism of action of a platinumcatalyst. Matter, or energy, it makes no difference as far as thefrequencies are concerned, because when the frequencies match, energytransfers. Thus, physical catalysts are not required. Rather, theapplication of at least a portion of the spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst may be sufficient (i.e. at least a portion of the catalyticspectral pattern). However, in another preferred embodiment,substantially all of a spectral pattern can be applied.

Still further, by understanding the catalyst mechanism of action,particular frequencies can be applied to, for example, one or morereactants in a reaction system and, for example, cause the appliedfrequencies to heterodyne with existing frequencies in the matter itselfto result in frequencies which correspond to one or more platinumcatalyst or other relevant spectral frequencies. For example, both thehydrogen atom and the hydrogen molecule have unique frequencies. Byheterodyning the frequencies a subtractive frequency can be determined:

NOF_(H atom)−NOF_(H molecule)=Difference_(H atom-molecule)

The Difference_(H atom-molecule) frequency applied to the H₂ moleculereactant will heterodyne with the molecule and energize the individualhydrogen atoms as intermediates. Similarly, any reaction participant canserve as the heterodyning backboard for stimulation of anotherparticipant. For example,

Difference_(H atom)−_(Oxygen molecule)+NOF_(oxygen molecule)=NOF_(H atom)

or

Difference_(OH-water)+NOF_(water)=NOF_(OH)

This approach enables greater flexibility for choice of appropriateequipment to apply appropriate frequencies. However, the key to thisapproach is understanding catalyst mechanisms of action and the reactionpathway so that appropriate choices for application of frequencies canbe made.

Specifically, whenever reference is made to, for example, a spectralcatalyst duplicating at least a portion of a physical catalyst'sspectral pattern, this reference is to all the different frequenciesproduced by a physical catalyst; including, but not necessarily limitedto, electronic, vibrational, rotational, and NOF frequencies. Tocatalyze, control, and/or direct a chemical reaction then, all that isneeded is to duplicate one or more frequencies from a physical catalyst,with, for example, an appropriate electromagnetic energy. The actualphysical presence of the catalyst is not necessary. A spectral catalystcan substantially completely replace a physical catalyst, if desired.

A spectral catalyst can also augment or promote the activity of aphysical catalyst. The exchange of energy at particular frequencies,between hydrogen, hydroxy, and platinum is primarily what drives theconversion to water. These participants interact and create a miniatureatomic scale lasing system that amplify their respective energies. Theaddition of these same energies to a reaction system, using a spectralcatalyst, does the same thing. The spectral catalyst amplifies theparticipant energies by resonating with them and when frequencies match,energy transfers and the chemicals (matter) can absorb the energy. Thus,a spectral catalyst can augment a physical catalyst, as well as replaceit. In so doing, the spectral catalyst may increase the reaction rate,enhance specificity, and/or allow for the use of less physical catalyst.

FIG. 12 shows a basic bell-shaped curve produced by comparing how muchenergy an object absorbs, as compared to the frequency of the energy.This curve is called a resonance curve. As elsewhere herein stated, theenergy transfer between, for example, atoms or molecules, reaches amaximum at the resonant frequency (f_(o)). The farther away an appliedfrequency is from the resonant frequency, f_(o), the lower the energytransfer (e.g., matter to matter, energy to matter, etc.). At some pointthe energy transfer will fall to a value representing only about 50% ofthat at the resonant frequency f_(o). The frequency higher than theresonant frequency, at which energy transfer is only about 50% is called“f₂.” The frequency lower than the resonant frequency, at which about50% energy transfer occurs, is labeled “f₁.”

The resonant characteristics of different objects can be compared usingthe information from the simple exemplary resonance curve shown in FIG.12. One such useful characteristic is called the “resonance quality” or“Q” factor. To determine the resonance quality for an object thefollowing equation is utilized:

$Q = \frac{f_{0}}{\left( {f_{2} - f_{1}} \right)}$

Accordingly, as shown from the equation, if the bell-shaped resonancecurve is tall and narrow, then (f₂−f₁) will be a very small number andQ, the resonance quality, will be high (see FIG. 13 a). An example of amaterial with a high “Q” is a high quality quartz crystal resonator. Ifthe resonance curve is low and broad, then the spread or differencebetween f₂ and f₁ will be relatively large. An example of a materialwith a low “Q” is a marshmallow. The dividing of the resonant frequencyby this large number will produce a much lower Q value (see FIG. 13 b).

Atoms and molecules, for example, have resonance curves which exhibitproperties similar to larger objects such as quartz crystals andmarshmallows. If the goal is to stimulate atoms in a reaction (e.g.,hydrogen in the reaction to produce water as mentioned previously) aprecise resonant frequency produced by a reaction system component orenvironmental reaction condition (e.g., hydrogen) can be used. It is notnecessary to use the precise frequency, however. Use of a frequency thatis near a resonant frequency of, for example, one or more reactionsystem components or environmental reaction conditions is adequate.There will not be quite as much of an effect as using the exact resonantfrequency, because less energy will be transferred, but there will stillbe an effect. The closer the applied frequency is to the resonantfrequency, the more the effect. The farther away the applied frequencyis from the resonant frequency, the less effect that is present (i.e.,the less energy transfer that occurs).

Harmonics present a similar situation. As previously stated, harmonicsare created by the heterodyning (i.e., adding and subtracting) offrequencies, allowing the transfer of significant amounts of energy.Accordingly, for example, desirable results can be achieved in chemicalreactions if applied frequencies (e.g., at least a portion of a spectralcatalyst) are harmonics (i.e., matching heterodynes) with one or moreresonant frequency(ies) of one or more reaction system components orenvironmental reaction conditions.

Further, similar to applied frequencies being close to resonantfrequencies, applied frequencies which are close to the harmonicfrequency can also produce desirable results. The amplitude of theenergy transfer will be less relative to a harmonic frequency, but aneffect will still occur. For example, if the harmonic produces 70% ofthe amplitude of the fundamental resonant frequency and by using afrequency which is merely close to the harmonic, for example, about 90%on the harmonic's resonance curve, then the total effect will be 90% of70%, or about 63% total energy transfer in comparison to a directresonant frequency. Accordingly, according to the present invention,when at least a portion of the frequencies of one or more reactionsystem components or environmental reaction conditions at leastpartially match, then at least some energy will transfer and at leastsome reaction will occur (i.e., when frequencies match, energytransfers).

Duplicating the Catalyst Mechanics of Action

As stated previously, to catalyze, control, and/or direct a chemicalreaction, a spectral catalyst can be applied. The spectral catalyst maycorrespond to at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst or the spectral catalyst may correspond to frequencies whichform or stimulate required participants (e.g., heterodyned frequencies)or the spectral catalyst may substantially duplicate environmentalreaction conditions such as temperature or pressure. Thus, as now taughtby the present invention, the actual physical presence of a catalyst isnot required to achieve the desirable chemical reactions. The removal ofa physical catalyst is accomplished by understanding the underlyingmechanism inherent in catalysis, namely that desirable energy can beexchanged (i.e., transferred) between, for example, (1) at least oneparticipant (e.g., reactant, transient, intermediate, activated complex,reaction product, promoter and/or poison) and/or at least one componentin a reaction system and (2) an applied electromagnetic energy (e.g.,spectral catalyst) when such energy is present at one or more specificfrequencies. In other words, the targeted mechanism that nature hasbuilt into the catalytic process can be copied according to theteachings of the present invention. Nature can be further mimickedbecause the catalyst process reveals several opportunities forduplicating catalyst mechanisms of action, and hence improving the useof spectral catalysts, as well as the control of countless chemicalreactions.

For example, the previously discussed reaction of hydrogen and oxygen toproduce water, which used platinum as a catalyst, is a good startingpoint for understanding catalyst mechanisms of action. For example, thisinvention discloses that platinum catalyzes the reaction in several waysnot contemplated by the prior art:

Platinum directly resonates with and energizes reaction intermediatesand/or transients (e.g., atomic hydrogen and hydroxy radicals);

Platinum harmonically resonates with and energizes at least one reactionintermediate and or transient (e.g., atomic hydrogen); and

Platinum energizes multiple upper energy levels of at least one reactionintermediate and or transient (e.g., atomic hydrogen).

This knowledge can be utilized to improve the functioning of thespectral catalyst and/or spectral energy catalyst to design spectralcatalysts and spectral energy catalysts which differ from actualcatalytic spectral patterns, and to design physical catalysts, and tooptimize environmental reaction conditions. For example, the frequenciesof atomic platinum are in the ultraviolet, visible light, and infraredregions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electronic spectra ofvirtually all atoms are in these same regions. However, these very highelectromagnetic frequencies can be a problem for large-scale andindustrial applications because wave energies having high frequenciestypically do not penetrate matter very well (i.e., do not penetrate farinto matter). The tendency of wave energy to be absorbed rather thantransmitted, can be referred to as attenuation. High frequency waveenergies have a high attenuation, and thus do not penetrate far into atypical industrial scale reaction vessel containing typical reactantsfor a chemical reaction. Thus, the duplication and application of atleast a portion of the spectral pattern of platinum into a commercialscale reaction vessel will typically be a slow process because a largeportion of the applied spectral pattern of the spectral catalysts may berapidly absorbed near the edges of the reaction vessel.

Thus, in order to input energy into a large industrial-sized commercialreaction vessel, a lower frequency energy could be used that wouldpenetrate farther into the reactants housed within the reaction vessel.The present invention teaches that this can be accomplished in a uniquemanner by copying nature. As discussed herein, the spectra of atoms andmolecules are broadly classified into three (3) different groups:electronic, vibrational, and rotational. The electronic spectra of atomsand small molecules are said to result from transitions of electronsfrom one energy level to another, and have the corresponding highestfrequencies, typically occurring in the ultraviolet (UV), visible, andinfrared (IR) regions of the EM spectrum. The vibrational spectra aresaid to result primarily from this movement of bonds between individualatoms within molecules, and typically occur in the infrared andmicrowave regions. Rotational spectra occur primarily in the microwaveand radiowave regions of the EM spectrum due, primarily, to the rotationof the molecules.

Microwave or radiowave radiation could be an acceptable frequency to beused as a spectral catalyst because it would penetrate well into a largereaction vessel. Unfortunately, platinum atoms do not producefrequencies in the microwave or radiowave portions of theelectromagnetic spectrum because they do not have vibrational orrotational spectra. However, by copying the mechanism of actionplatinum, selected platinum frequencies can be used as a model for aspectral catalyst in the microwave portion of the spectrum.Specifically, as previously discussed, one mechanism of action ofplatinum in the reaction system to produce water involves energizing atleast one reaction intermediate and/or transient. Reaction intermediatesin this reaction are atomic hydrogen and the hydroxy radical. Atomichydrogen has a high frequency electronic spectrum without vibrational orrotational spectra. The hydroxy radical, on the other hand, is amolecule, and has vibrational and rotational spectra as well as anelectronic spectrum. Thus, the hydroxy radical emits, absorbs andheterodynes frequencies in the microwave portion of the electromagneticspectrum.

Thus, to copy the mechanism of action of platinum in the reaction toform water, namely resonating with at least one reaction intermediateand/or transient, the hydroxy intermediate can be specifically targetedvia resonance. However, instead of resonating with the hydroxy radicalin its electronic spectrum, as physical platinum catalyst does, at leastone hydroxy frequency in the microwave portion of the EM spectrum can beused to resonate with the hydroxy radical. Hydroxy radicals heterodyneat a microwave frequency of about 21.4 GHz. Energizing a reaction systemof hydrogen and oxygen gas with a spectral catalyst at about 21.4 GHzwill catalyze the formation of water. In this instance, the mechanism ofaction of the physical catalyst platinum has been partially copied andthe mechanism has been shifted to a different region of theelectromagnetic spectrum.

The second method discussed above for platinum catalyzing a reaction,involves harmonically energizing at least one reaction intermediate inthe reaction system. For example, assume that one or more lasers wasavailable to catalyze the hydrogen-oxygen reaction to form water,however, the frequency range of such lasers was only from, for example,1,500 to 2,000 THz. Platinum does not produce frequencies in thatportion of the EM spectrum. Moreover, the two hydroxy frequencies thatplatinum resonates with, 975 and 1,060 THz, are outside the frequencyrange that the lasers, in this example, can generate. Likewise, thehydrogen spectrum does not have any frequencies between 1,500 and 2,000THz (see FIGS. 9-10).

However, according to the present invention, by again copying themechanism of action of platinum, frequencies can be adapted or selectedto be convenient and/or efficient for the equipment available.Specifically, harmonic frequencies corresponding to the reactionintermediates and/or transients, and also corresponding to frequenciescapable of being generated by the lasers of this example, can beutilized. For the hydroxy radical, having a resonant frequency of 975THz, the first harmonic is 1,950 THz. Thus, a laser of this examplecould be tuned to 1,950 THz to resonate harmonically with the hydroxyintermediate. The first harmonics of three different hydrogenfrequencies also fall within the operational range of the lasers of thisexample. The fundamental frequencies are 755, 770 and 781 THz and thefirst harmonics are 1,510, 1,540, and 1,562 THz, respectively. Thus, alaser of this example could be tuned to the first harmonics 1,510,1,540, and 1,562 THz in order to achieve a heterodyned matching offrequencies between electromagnetic energy and matter and thus achieve atransfer and absorption of said energy.

Thus, depending on how many lasers are available and the frequencies towhich the lasers can be tuned, third or fourth harmonics could also beutilized. The third harmonic of the hydrogen frequency, 456 THz, occursat 1,824 THz, which is also within the operating range of the lasers ofthis example. Similarly, the fourth harmonic of the hydrogen frequency,314 THz, occurs at 1,570 THz, which again falls within the operatingrange of the lasers of this example. In summary, a mechanism of actionof a physical catalyst can be copied, duplicated or mimicked whilemoving the relevant spectral catalyst frequencies, to a portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum that matches equipment available for thereaction system and the application of electromagnetic energy.

The third method discussed above for platinum catalyzing this reactioninvolves energizing at least one reaction intermediate and/or transientat multiple upper energy levels and setting up, for example, an atomicscale laser system. Again, assume that the same lasers discussed aboveare the only electromagnetic energy sources available and assume thatthere are a total of ten (10) lasers available. There are four (4) firstharmonics available for targeting within the operating frequency rangeof 1,500 to 2,000 THz. Some portion of the lasers should be adjusted tofour (4) first harmonics and some should be adjusted to the third,fourth, and higher harmonics. Specifically, the present invention hasdiscovered that a mechanism of action that physical platinum uses is toresonate with multiple upper energy levels of at least one reactionparticipant. It is now understood that the more upper energy levels thatare involved, the better. This creates an atomic scale laser system withamplification of the electromagnetic energies being exchanged betweenthe atoms of platinum and hydrogen. This amplification of energycatalyzes the reaction at a much faster rate than the reaction wouldordinarily proceed. This mechanism of action can also be exploited tocatalyze, for example, the reaction with the available lasers discussedabove.

For example, rather than setting all ten (10) lasers to the four (4)first harmonics and energizing only four (4) levels, it should now beunderstood that it would be desirable to energize as many differentenergy levels as possible. This task can be accomplished by setting eachof the ten (10) lasers to a different frequency. Even though thephysical catalyst platinum is not present, the energizing of multipleupper energy levels in the hydrogen will amplify the energies beingexchanged between the atoms, and the reaction system will form its' ownlaser system between the hydrogen atoms. This will permit the reactionto proceed at a much faster rate than it ordinarily would. Once again,nature can be mimicked by duplicating one of her mechanisms of action byspecifically targeting multiple energy levels with a spectral catalystto achieve energy transfer in a novel manner.

The preceding discussion on duplicating catalyst mechanisms of action isjust the beginning of an understanding of many variables associated withthe use of spectral catalysts. These additional variables should beviewed as potentially very useful tools for enhancing the performance ofspectral energy, and/or physical catalysts. There are many factors andvariables that affect both catalyst performance, and chemical reactionsin general. For example, when the same catalyst is mixed with the samereactant, but exposed to different environmental reaction conditionssuch as temperature or pressure, different products can be produced.Consider the following example:

The same catalyst with the same reactant, produces quite differentproducts in these two reactions, namely molecular hydrogen orcyclohexane, depending on the reaction temperature.

Many factors are known in the art which affect the direction andintensity with which a physical catalyst guides a reaction or with whicha reaction proceeds in general. Temperature is but one of these factors.Other factors include pressure, volume, surface area of physicalcatalysts, solvents, support materials, contaminants, catalyst size andshape and composition, reactor vessel size, shape and composition,electric fields, magnetic fields, and acoustic fields. The presentinvention teaches that these factors all have one thing in common. Thesefactors are capable of changing the spectral patterns (i.e., frequencypattern) of, for example, participants and/or reaction systemcomponents. Some changes in spectra are very well studied and thus muchinformation is available for consideration and application thereof. Theprior art does not contemplate, however, the spectral chemistry basisfor each of these factors, and how they relate to catalyst mechanisms ofaction, and chemical reactions in general. Further, alternatively,effects of the aforementioned factors can be enhanced or diminished bythe application of additional spectral, spectral energy, and/or physicalcatalyst frequencies. Moreover, these environmental reaction conditionscan be at least partially simulated in a reaction system by theapplication of one or more corresponding spectral environmental reactionconditions (e.g., a spectral energy pattern which duplicates at least aportion of one or more environmental reaction conditions).Alternatively, one spectral environmental reaction condition (e.g., aspectral energy pattern corresponding to temperature) could besubstituted for another (e.g., spectral energy pattern corresponding topressure) so long as the goal of matching of frequencies was met.

Temperature

At very low temperatures, the spectral pattern of an atom or moleculehas clean, crisp peaks (see FIG. 15 a). As the temperature increases,the peaks begin to broaden, producing a bell-shaped curve of a spectralpattern (see FIG. 15 b). At even higher temperatures, the bell-shapedcurve broadens even more, to include more and more frequencies on eitherside of the primary frequency (see FIG. 15 c). This phenomenon is called“broadening”.

These spectral curves are very much like the resonance curves discussedin the previous section. Spectroscopists use resonance curve terminologyto describe spectral frequency curves for atoms and molecules (see FIG.16). The frequency at the top of the curve, f_(o), is called theresonance frequency. There is a frequency (f₂) above the resonancefrequency and another (f₁) below it (i.e., in frequency), at which theenergy or intensity (i.e., amplitude) is 50% of that for the resonancefrequency f_(o). The quantity f₂−f₁ is a measure of how wide or narrowthe spectral frequency curve is. This quantity (f₂−f₁) is the “linewidth”. A spectrum with narrow curves has a small line width, while aspectrum with wide curves has a large line width.

Temperature affects the line width of spectral curves. Line width canaffect catalyst performance, chemical reactions and/or reactionpathways. At low temperatures, the spectral curves of chemical specieswill be separate and distinct, with a lesser possibility for thetransfer of resonant energy between potential reaction system components(see FIG. 17 a). However, as the line widths of potentially reactivechemical species broaden, their spectral curves may start to overlapwith spectral curves of other chemical species (see FIG. 17 b). Whenfrequencies match, or spectral energy patterns overlap, energytransfers. Thus, when temperatures are low, frequencies do not match andreactions are slow. At higher temperatures, resonant transfer of energycan take place and reactions can proceed very quickly or proceed along adifferent reaction pathway than they otherwise would have at a lowertemperature.

Besides affecting the line width of the spectral curves, temperaturealso can change, for example, the resonant frequency of reaction systemcomponents. For some chemical species, the resonant frequency will shiftas temperature changes. This can be seen in the infrared absorptionspectra in FIG. 18 a and blackbody radiation graphs shown in FIG. 18 b.Further, atoms and molecules do not all shift their resonant frequenciesby the same amount or in the same direction, when they are at the sametemperature. This can also affect catalyst performance. For example, ifa catalyst resonant frequency shifts more with increased temperaturethan the resonant frequency of its targeted chemical species, then thecatalyst could end up matching the frequency of a chemical species, andresonance may be created where none previously existed (see FIG. 18 c).Specifically, FIG. 18 c shows catalyst “C” at low temperature and “C*”at high temperature. The catalyst “C*” resonates with reactant “A” athigh temperatures, but not at low temperatures.

The amplitude or intensity of a spectral line may be affected bytemperature also. For example, linear and symmetric rotor molecules willhave an increase in intensity as the temperature is lowered while othermolecules will increase intensity as the temperature is raised. Thesechanges of spectral intensity can also affect catalyst performance.Consider the example where a low intensity spectral curve of a catalystis resonant with one or more frequencies of a specific chemical target.Only small amounts of energy can be transferred from the catalyst to thetarget chemical (e.g., a hydroxy intermediate). As temperatureincreases, the amplitude of the catalyst's curve increases also. In thisexample, the catalyst can transfer much larger amounts of energy to thechemical target when the temperature is raised.

If the chemical target is the intermediate chemical species for analternative reaction route, the type and ratio of end products may beaffected. By examining the above cyclohexene/palladium reaction again,at temperatures below 300° C., the products are benzene and hydrogengas. However, when the temperature is above 300° C., the products arebenzene and cyclohexane. Temperature is affecting the palladium and/orother constituents in the reaction system (including, for example,reactants, intermediates, and/or products) in such a way that analternative reaction pathway leading to the formation of cyclohexane isfavored above 300° C. This could be a result of, for example, increasedline width, altered resonance frequencies, or changes in spectral curveintensities for any of the components in the reaction system.

It is important to consider not only the spectral catalyst frequenciesone may wish to use to catalyze a reaction, but also the reactionconditions under which those frequencies are supposed to work. Forexample, in the palladium/cyclohexene reaction at low temperatures, thepalladium may match frequencies with an intermediate for the formationof hydrogen molecules (H₂). At temperatures above 300° C. the reactantsand transients may be unaffected, but the palladium may have anincreased line width, altered resonant frequency and/or increasedintensity. The changes in the line width, resonant frequency and/orintensity may cause the palladium to match frequencies and transferenergy to an intermediate in the formation of cyclohexane instead. If aspectral catalyst was to be used to assist in the formation ofcyclohexane at room temperature, the frequency for the cyclohexaneintermediate would be more effective if used, rather than the spectralcatalyst frequency used at room temperature.

Thus, it may be important to understand the reaction system dynamics indesigning and selecting an appropriate spectral catalyst. The transferof energy between different reaction system components will vary,depending on temperature. Once understood, this allows one to knowinglyadjust temperature to optimize a reaction, reaction product, interactionand/or formation of reaction product at a desirable reaction rate,without the trial and error approaches of prior art. Further, it allowsone to choose catalysts such as physical catalysts, spectral catalysts,and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize a desired reaction pathway.This understanding of the spectral impact of temperature allows one toperform customarily high temperature (and, sometimes high danger)chemical processes at safer, room temperatures. It also allows one todesign physical catalysts which work at much broader temperature ranges(e.g., frigid arctic temperatures or hot furnace temperatures), asdesired.

Pressure

Pressure and temperature are directly related to each other.Specifically, from the ideal gas law, we know that

PV=nRT

where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R isthe gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Thus, atequilibrium, an increase in temperature will result in a correspondingincrease in pressure. Pressure also has an effect on spectral patterns.Specifically, increases in pressure can cause broadening and changes inspectral curves, just as increases in temperature do (see FIG. 19 whichshows the pressure broadening effects on the NH₃ 3.3 absorption line).

Mathematical treatments of pressure broadening are generally groupedinto either collision or statistical theories. In collision theories,the assumption is made that most of the time an atom or molecule is sofar from other atoms or molecules that their energy fields do notinteract. Occasionally, however, the atoms or molecules come so closetogether that they collide. In this case, the atom or molecule mayundergo a change in wave phase (spectral) function, or may change to adifferent energy level. Collision theories treat the matter's emittedenergy as occurring only when the atom or molecule is far from others,and is not involved in a collision. Because collision theories ignorespectral frequencies during collisions, collision theories fail topredict accurately chemical behavior at more than a few atmospheres ofpressure, when collisions are frequent.

Statistical theories, however, consider spectral frequencies before,during and after collisions. They are based on calculating theprobabilities that various atoms and/or molecules are interacting with,or perturbed by other atoms or molecules. The drawback with statisticaltreatments of pressure effects is that the statistical treatments do notdo a good job of accounting for the effects of molecular motion. In anyevent, neither collision nor statistical theories adequately predict therich interplay of frequencies and heterodynes that take place aspressure is increased. Experimental work has demonstrated that increasedpressure can have effects similar to those produced by increasedtemperature, by:

1) broadening of the spectral curve, producing increased line width; and

2) shifting of the resonant frequency (f_(o)).

Pressure effects different from those produced by temperatures are: (1)pressure changes typically do not affect intensity, (see FIG. 20 whichshows a theoretical set of curves exhibiting an unchanged intensity forthree applied different pressures) as with temperature changes; and (2)the curves produced by pressure broadening are often less symmetric thanthe temperature-affected curves. Consider the shape of the threetheoretical curves shown in FIG. 20. As the pressure increases, thecurves become less symmetrical. A tail extending into the higherfrequencies develops. This upper frequency extension is confirmed by theexperimental work shown in FIG. 21. Specifically, FIG. 21 a shows apattern for the absorption by water vapor in air (10 g of H₂O per cubicmeter); and FIG. 21 b shows the absorption in NH₃ at 1 atmospherepressure.

Pressure broadening effects on spectral curves are broadly grouped intotwo types: resonance or “Holtsmark” broadening, and “Lorentz”broadening. Holtsmark broadening is secondary to collisions betweenatoms of the same element, and thus the collisions are considered to besymmetrical. Lorentz broadening results from collisions between atoms ormolecules which are different. The collisions are asymmetric, and theresonant frequency, f_(o), is often shifted to a lower frequency. Thisshift in resonant frequency is shown in FIG. 20. The changes in spectralcurves and frequencies that accompany changes in pressure can affectcatalysts, both physical and spectral, and chemical reactions and/orreaction pathways. At low pressures, the spectral curves tend to befairly narrow and crisp, and nearly symmetrical about the resonantfrequency. However, as pressures increase, the curves may broaden,shift, and develop high frequency tails.

At low pressures the spectral frequencies in the reaction system mightbe so different for the various atoms and molecules that there may belittle or no resonant effect, and thus little or no energy transfer. Athigher pressures, however, the combination of broadening, shifting andextension into higher frequencies can produce overlapping between thespectral curves, resulting in the creation of resonance, where nonepreviously existed, and thus, the transfer of energy. The reactionsystem may proceed down one reaction pathway or another, depending onthe changes in spectral curves produced by various pressure changes. Onereaction pathway may be resonant and proceed at moderate pressure, whileanother reaction pathway may be resonant and predominate at higherpressures. As with temperature, it is important to consider the reactionsystem frequencies and mechanisms of action of various catalysts underthe environmental reaction conditions one wishes to duplicate.Specifically, in order for an efficient transfer of energy to occurbetween, for example, a spectral catalyst and at least one reactant in areaction system, there must be at least some overlap in frequencies.

For example, a reaction with a physical catalyst at 400 THz and a keytransient at 500 THz may proceed slowly at atmospheric pressure. Wherethe frequency pressure is raised to about five (5) atmospheres, thecatalyst broadens out through the 500 THz, for example, of thetransient. This allows the transfer of energy between the catalyst andtransient by, for example, energizing and stimulating the transient. Thereaction then proceeds very quickly. Without wishing to be bound by anyparticular theory or explanation, it appears that, the speed of thereaction has much less to do with the number of collisions (as taught bythe prior art) than it has to do with the spectral patterns of thereaction system components. In the above example, the reaction could beenergized at low pressures by applying the 500 THz frequency to directlystimulate the key transient. This could also be accompanied indirectlyusing various heterodynes, (e.g., @ 1,000 THz harmonic, or a 100 THznon-harmonic heterodyne between the catalyst and transient (500 THz−400THz=100 THz.).

As shown herein, the transfer of energy between different reactionsystem components will vary, depending on pressure. Once understood,this allows one to knowingly adjust pressure to optimize a reaction,without the trial and error approaches of prior art. Further, it allowsone to choose catalysts such as physical catalysts, spectral catalysts,and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize one or more desired reactionpathways. This understanding of the spectral impact of pressure allowsone to perform customarily high pressure (and thus, typically, highdanger) chemical processes at safer, room pressures. It also allows oneto design physical catalysts which work over a large range of acceptablepressures (e.g., low pressures approaching a vacuum to severalatmospheres of pressure).

Surface Area

Traditionally, the surface are of a catalyst has been considered to beimportant because the available surface area controls the number ofavailable binding sites. Supposedly, the more exposed binding sites, themore catalysis. In light of the spectral mechanisms disclosed in thepresent invention, surface area may be important for another reason.

Many of the spectral catalyst frequencies that correspond to physicalcatalysts are electronic frequencies in the visible light andultraviolet regions of the spectrum. These high frequencies haverelatively poor penetrance into, for example, large reaction vesselsthat contain one or more reactants. The high frequency spectralemissions from a catalyst such as platinum or palladium (or theequivalent spectral catalyst) will thus not travel very far into such areaction system before such spectral emissions (or spectral catalysts)are absorbed. Thus, for example, an atom or molecule must be fairlyclose to a physical catalyst so that their respective electronicfrequencies can interact.

Thus, surface area primarily affects the probability that a particularchemical species, will be close enough to the physical catalyst tointeract with its electromagnetic spectra emission(s). With smallsurface area, few atoms or molecules will be close enough to interact.However, as surface area increases, so too does the probability thatmore atoms or molecules will be within range for reaction. Thus, ratherthan increasing the available number of binding sites, larger surfacearea probably increases the volume of the reaction system exposed to thespectral catalyst frequencies or patterns. This is similar to theconcept of assuring adequate penetration of a spectral catalyst into areaction system (e.g., assuming that there are adequate opportunitiesfor species to interact with each other).

An understanding of the effects of surface area on catalysts andreaction system components allows one to knowingly adjust surface areaand other reaction system components to optimize a reaction, reactionpathway and/or formation of reaction product(s), at a desirable reactionrate, without the drawbacks of the prior art. For instance, surface areais currently optimized by making catalyst particles as small aspossible, thereby maximizing the overall surface area. The smallparticles have a tendency to, for example, sinter (merge or bondtogether) which decreases the overall surface area and catalyticactivity. Rejuvenation of a large surface area catalyst can be a costlyand time-consuming process. This process can be avoided with anunderstanding of the herein presented invention in the field of spectralchemistry. For example, assume a reaction is quickly catalyzed by a 3 m²catalyst bed (in a transfer of energy from catalyst to a key reactantand product). After sintering takes place, however, the surface area isreduced to 1 m². Thus, the transfer of energy from the catalyst isdramatically reduced, and the reaction slows down. The costly andtime-consuming process of rejuvenating the surface area can be avoided(or at least delayed) by augmenting the reaction system with one or moredesirable spectral energy patterns. In addition, because spectral energypatterns can affect the final physical form or phase of a material, aswell as its chemical formula, the sintering process itself may bereduced or eliminated.

Catalyst Size and Shape

In a related line of reasoning, catalyst size and shape are classicallythought to affect physical catalyst activity. Selectivity of reactionscontrolled by particle size has historically been used to steercatalytic pathways. As with surface area, certain particle sizes arethought to provide a maximum number of active binding sites and thusmaximize the reaction rate. The relationship between size and surfacearea has been previously discussed.

In light of the current understanding of the spectral mechanismsunderlying the activity of physical catalysts and reactions in general,catalyst size and shape may be important for other reasons. One of thosereasons is a phenomenon called “self absorption”. When a single atom ormolecule produces its' classical spectral pattern it radiateselectromagnetic energy which travels outward from the atom or moleculeinto neighboring space. FIG. 22 a shows radiation from a single atomversus radiation from a group of atoms as shown in FIG. 22 b. As moreand more atoms or molecules group together, radiation from the center ofthe group is absorbed by its' neighbors and may never make it out intospace. Depending on the size and shape of the group of atoms, selfabsorption can cause a number of changes in the spectral emissionpattern (see FIG. 23). Specifically, FIG. 23 a shows a normal spectralcurve produced by a single atom; FIG. 23 b shows a resonant frequencyshift due to self absorption; FIG. 23 c shows a self-reversal spectralpattern produced by self absorption in a group of atoms and FIG. 23 dshows a self-reversal spectral pattern produced by self absorption in agroup of atoms. These changes include a shift in resonant frequency andself-reversal patterns.

The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes incatalyst size and shape can affect catalysts, chemical reactions and/orreaction pathways. For example, atoms or molecules of a physicalcatalyst may produce spectral frequencies in the reaction system whichresonate with a key transient and/or reaction product. With largergroups of atoms, such as in a sintered catalyst, the combination ofresonant frequency shifting and self-reversal may eliminate overlappingbetween the spectral curves of chemical species, thereby minimizing ordestroying conditions of resonance.

A reaction system may proceed down one reaction pathway or another,depending on the changes in spectral curves produced by the particlesizes. For example, a catalyst having a moderate particle size mayproceed down a first reaction pathway while a larger size catalyst maydirect the reaction down another reaction pathway.

The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes incatalyst size and shape are relevant for practical applications.Industrial catalysts are manufactured in a range of sizes and shapes,depending on the design requirements of the process and the type ofreactor used. Catalyst activity is typically proportional to the surfacearea of the catalyst bed in the reactor. Surface area increases as thesize of the catalyst particles decreases. Seemingly, the smaller thecatalyst particles, the better for industrial applications. This is notalways the case, however. When a very fine bed of catalyst particles isused, high pressures may be required to force the reacting chemicalsacross or through the catalyst bed. The chemicals enter the catalyst bedunder high pressure, and exit the bed (e.g., the other side) at a lowerpressure. This large difference between entry and exit pressures iscalled a “pressure drop”. A compromise is often required betweencatalyst size, catalyst activity, and pressure drop across the catalystbed.

The use of spectral catalysts according to the present invention allowsfor much finer tuning of this compromise. For example, a large catalystsize can be used so that pressure drops across the catalyst bed areminimized. At the same time, the high level of catalyst activityobtained with a smaller catalyst size can still be obtained by, forexample, augmenting the physical catalyst with at least a portion of oneor more spectral catalyst(s).

For example, assume that a 10 mm average particle size catalyst has 50%of the activity of a 5 mm average particle size catalyst. With a 5mm-diameter catalyst, however, the pressure drop across the reactor maybe so large that the reaction cannot be economically performed. Thecompromise in historical processes has typically been to use twice asmuch of the 10 mm catalyst, to obtain the same, or approximately thesame, amount of activity as with the original amount of 5 mm catalyst.However, an alternative desirable approach is to use the original amountof 10 mm physical catalyst and augment the physical catalyst with atleast a portion of at least one spectral catalyst. Catalyst activity canbe effectively doubled (or increased even more) by the spectralcatalyst, resulting in approximately the same degree of activity (orperhaps even greater activity) as with the 5 mm catalyst. Thus, thepresent invention permits the size of the catalyst to be larger, whileretaining favorable reactor vessel pressure conditions so that thereaction can be performed economically, using half as much (or less)physical catalyst as compared to traditional prior art approaches.

Another manner to approach the problem of pressure drops in physicalcatalyst beds, is to eliminate the physical catalyst completely. Forexample, in another embodiment of the invention, a fiberoptic sieve,(e.g., one with very large pores) can be used in a flow-through reactorvessel. If the pore size is designed to be large enough there can bevirtually no pressure drop across the sieve, compared to a pressure dropaccompanying the use of a 5 mm diameter or even a 10 mm diameterphysical catalyst discussed above. According to the present invention,the spectral catalyst can be emitted through the fiberoptic sieve, thuscatalyzing the reacting species as they flow by. This improvement overthe prior art approaches has significant processing implicationsincluding lower costs, higher rates and improved safety, to mention onlya few.

Industrial catalysts are also manufactured in a range of shapes, as wellas sizes. Shapes include spheres, irregular granules, pellets,extrudate, and rings. Some shapes are more expensive to manufacture thanothers, while some shapes have superior properties (e.g., catalystactivity, strength, and less pressure drop) than others. While spheresare inexpensive to manufacture, a packed bed of spheres produceshigh-pressure drops and the spheres are typically not very strong.Physical catalyst rings on the other hand, have superior strength andactivity and produce very little pressure drop, but they are alsorelatively expensive to produce.

Spectral energy catalysts permit a greater flexibility in choosingcatalyst shape. For example, instead of using a packed bed ofinexpensive spheres, with the inevitable high pressure drop andresulting mechanical damage to the catalyst particles, a single layer ofspheres augmented, for example, with a spectral energy catalyst can beused. This catalyst is inexpensive, activity is maintained, and largepressure drops are not produced, thus preventing mechanical damage andextending the useful life of physical catalyst spheres. Similarly, farsmaller numbers of catalyst rings can be used while obtaining the sameor greater catalyst activity by, for example, supplementing with atleast a portion of a spectral catalyst. The process can proceed at afaster flow-through rate because the catalyst bed will be smallerrelative to a bed that is not augmented with a spectral catalyst.

The use of spectral energy catalysts and/or spectral environmentalreaction conditions to augment existing physical catalysts has thefollowing advantages:

-   -   permit the use of less expensive shaped catalyst particles;    -   permit the use of fewer catalyst particles overall;    -   permit the use of stronger shapes of catalyst particles; and    -   permit the use of catalyst particle shapes with better pressure        drop characteristics.

Their use to replace existing physical catalysts has similar advantages:

-   -   eliminate the use and expense of catalyst particles altogether;    -   allow use of spectral catalyst delivery systems that are        stronger; and    -   delivery systems can be designed to incorporate superior        pressure drop characteristics.

Catalyst size and shape are also important to spectral emission patternsbecause all objects have an NOF depending on their size and shape. Thesmaller an object is in dimension, the higher its NOF will be infrequency (because speed=length×frequency). Also, two (2) objects of thesame size, but different shape will have different NOF's (e.g., theresonant NOF frequency of a 1.0 m diameter sphere, is different from theNOF for a 1.0 m edged cube). Wave energies (both acoustic and EM) willhave unique resonant frequencies for particular objects. The objects,such as physical catalyst particles or powder granules of reactants in aslurry, will act like antennas, absorbing and emitting energies at theirstructurally resonant frequencies. With this understanding, one isfurther able to manipulate and control the size and shape of reactionsystem components (e.g., physical catalysts, reactants, etc.) to achievedesired effects. For example, a transient for a desired reaction pathwaymay produce a spectral rotational frequency of 30 GHz. Catalyst spheres1 cm in diameter with structural EM resonant frequency of 30 GHz (3×10⁸m/s 1×10⁻² m=30×10⁹ Hz), can be used to catalyze the reaction. Thecatalyst particles will structurally resonate with the rotationalfrequency of the transient, providing energy to the transient andcatalyzing the reaction. Likewise, the structurally resonant catalystparticles may be further energized by a spectral energy catalyst, suchas, for example, 30 GHz microwave radiation. Thus understood, thespectral dynamics of chemical reactions can be much more preciselycontrolled than in prior art trial and error approaches.

Solvents

Typically, the term solvent is applied to mixtures for which the solventis a liquid, however, it should be understood that solvents may alsocomprise solids, liquids, gases or plasmas and/or mixtures and/orcomponents thereof. The prior art typically groups liquid solvents intothree broad classes: aqueous, organic, and non-aqueous. If an aqueoussolvent is used, it means that the solvent is water. Organic solventsinclude hydrocarbons such as alcohols and ethers. Non-aqueous solventsinclude inorganic non-water substances. Many catalyzed reactions takeplace in solvents.

Because solvents are themselves composed of atoms, molecules and/or ionsthey can have pronounced effects on chemical reactions. Solvents arecomprised of matter and they emit their own spectral frequencies. Thepresent invention teaches that these solvent frequencies undergo thesame basic processes discussed earlier, including heterodyning,resonance, and harmonics. Spectroscopists have known for years that asolvent can dramatically affect the spectral frequencies produced byits' solutes. Likewise, chemists have known for years that solvents canaffect catalyst activity. However, the spectroscopists and chemists inthe prior art have apparently not associated these long studied changesin solute frequencies with changes in catalyst activity. The presentinvention recognizes that these changes in solute spectral frequenciescan affect catalyst activity and chemical reactions and/or reactionpathways in general, changes include spectral curve broadening. Changesof curve intensity, gradual or abrupt shifting of the resonant frequencyf₀, and even abrupt rearrangement of resonant frequencies.

When reviewing FIG. 24 a, the solid line represents a portion of thespectral pattern of phthalic acid in alcohol while the dotted linerepresents phthalic acid in the solvent hexane. Consider a reactiontaking place in alcohol, in which the catalyst resonates with phthalicacid at a frequency of 1,250, the large solid curve in the middle. Ifthe solvent is changed to hexane, the phthalic acid no longer resonatesat a frequency of 1,250 and the catalyst can not stimulate and energizeit. The change in solvent will render the catalyst ineffective.

Similarly, in reference to FIG. 24 b, iodine produces a high intensitycurve at 580 when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride, as shown in curveB. In alcohol, as shown by curve A the iodine produces instead, amoderate intensity curve at 1,050 and a low intensity curve at 850.Accordingly, assume that a reaction uses a spectral catalyst thatresonates directly with the iodine in carbon tetrachloride at 580. Ifthe spectral catalyst does not change and the solvent is changed toalcohol, the spectral catalyst will no longer function becausefrequencies no longer match and energy will not transfer. Specifically,the spectral catalyst's frequency of 580 will no longer match andresonate with the new iodine frequencies of 850 and 1,050.

However, there is the possibility that the catalyst will change itsspectral pattern with a change in the solvent. The catalyst could changein a similar manner to the iodine, in which case the catalyst maycontinue to catalyze the reaction regardless of the change in solvent.Conversely, the spectral catalyst pattern could change in a directionopposite to the spectral pattern of the iodine. In this instance, thecatalyst will again fail to catalyze the original reaction. There isalso the possibility that the change in the catalyst could bring thecatalyst into resonance with a different chemical species and help thereaction proceed down an alternative reaction pathway.

Finally, consider the graph in FIG. 24 c, which shows a variety ofsolvent mixtures ranging from 100% benzene at the far left, to a 50:50mixture of benzene and alcohol in the center, to 100% alcohol at the farright. The solute is phenylazophenol. The phenylazophenol has afrequency of 855-860 for most of the solvent mixtures. For a 50:50benzene:alcohol mixture the frequency is 855; or for a 98:2benzene:alcohol mixture the frequency is still 855. However, at 99.5:0.5benzene:alcohol mixture, the frequency abruptly changes to about 865. Acatalyst active in 100% benzene by resonating with the phenylazophenolat 865, will lose its activity if there is even a slight amount ofalcohol (e.g., 0.5%) in the solvent.

Thus understood, the principles of spectral chemistry presented hereincan be applied to catalysis, and reactions and/or reaction pathways ingeneral. Instead of using the prior art trial and error approach to thechoice of solvents and/or other reaction system components, solvents canbe tailored and/or modified to optimize the spectral environmentalreaction conditions. For example, a reaction may have a key reactionparticipant which resonates at 400 THz, while the catalyst resonates at800 THz transferring energy harmonically. Changing the solvent may causethe resonant frequencies of both the participant and the catalyst toabruptly shift to 600 THz. There the catalyst would resonate directlywith the participant, transferring even more energy, and catalyzing thereaction system more efficiently.

Support Materials

Catalysts can be either unsupported or supported. An unsupportedcatalyst is a formulation of the pure catalyst, with substantially noother molecules present. Unsupported catalysts are rarely usedindustrially because these catalysts generally have low surface area andhence low activity. The low surface area can result from, for example,sintering, or coalescence of small molecules of the catalyst into largerparticles in a process which reduces surface tension of the particles.An example of an unsupported catalyst is platinum alloy gauze, which issometimes used for the selective oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide.Another example is small silver granules, sometimes used to catalyze thereaction of methanol with air, to form formaldehyde. When the use ofunsupported catalysts is possible, their advantages includestraightforward fabrication and relatively simple installation invarious industrial processes.

A supported catalyst is a formulation of the catalyst with otherparticles, the other particles acting as a supporting skeleton for thecatalyst. Traditionally, the support particles are thought to be inert,thus providing a simple physical scaffolding for the catalyst molecules.Thus, one of the traditional functions of the support material is togive the catalyst shape and mechanical strength. The support material isalso said to reduce sintering rates. If the catalyst support is finelydivided similar to the catalyst, the support will act as a “spacer”between the catalyst particles, and hence prevent sintering. Analternative theory holds that an interaction takes place between thecatalyst and support, thereby preventing sintering. This theory issupported by the many observations that catalyst activity is altered bychanges in support material structure and composition.

Supported catalysts are generally made by one or more of the followingthree methods: impregnation, precipitation, and/or crystallization.Impregnation techniques use preformed support materials, which are thenexposed to a solution containing the catalyst or its precursors. Thecatalyst or precursors diffuse into the pores of the support. Heating,or another conversion process, drives off the solvent and transforms thecatalyst or precursors into the final catalyst. The most common supportmaterials for impregnation are refractory oxides such as aluminas andaluminum hydrous oxides. These support materials have found theirgreatest use for catalysts that must operate under extreme conditionssuch as steam reforming, because they have reasonable mechanicalstrengths.

Precipitation techniques use concentrated solutions of catalyst salts(e.g., usually metal salts). The salt solutions are rapidly mixed andthen allowed to precipitate in a finely divided form. The precipitate isthen prepared using a variety of processes including washing, filtering,drying, heating, and pelleting. Often a graphitic lubricant is added.Precipitated catalysts have high catalytic activity secondary to highsurface area, but they are generally not as strong as impregnatedcatalysts.

Crystallization techniques produce support materials called zeolites.The structure of these crystallized catalyst zeolites is based on SiO₄and AlO₄ (see FIG. 25 a which shows the tetrahedral units of silicon;and FIG. 25 b which shows the tetrahedral units of aluminum). Theseunits link in different combinations to form structural families, whichinclude rings, chains, and complex polyhedra. For example, the SiO₄ andAlO₄ tetrahedral units can form truncated octahedron structures, whichform the building blocks for A, X, and Y zeolites (see FIG. 26 a whichshows a truncated octahedron structure with lines representing oxygenatoms and corners are Al or Si atoms; FIG. 26 b which shows zeolite withjoined truncated octahedrons joined by oxygen bridges between squarefaces; and FIG. 26 c which shows zeolites X and Y with joined truncatedoctahedrons joined by oxygen bridges between hexagonal faces).

The crystalline structure of zeolites gives them a well defined poresize and structure. This differs from the varying pore sizes found inimpregnated or precipitated support materials. Zeolite crystals are madeby mixing solutions of silicates and aluminates and the catalyst.Crystallization is generally induced by heating (see spectral effects oftemperature in the Section entitled “Temperature”). The structure of theresulting zeolite depends on the silicon/aluminum ratio, theirconcentration, the presence of added catalyst, the temperature, and eventhe size of the reaction vessels used, all of which are environmentalreaction conditions. Zeolites generally have greater specificity thanother catalyst support materials (e.g., they do not just speed up thereaction). They also may steer the reaction towards a particularreaction pathway.

Support materials can affect the activity of a catalyst. Traditionally,the prior art has attributed these effects to geometric factors.However, according to the present invention, there are spectral factorsto consider as well. It has been well established that solvents affectthe spectral patterns produced by their solutes. Solvents can beliquids, solids, gases and/or plasmas Support materials can, in manycases, be viewed as nothing more than solid solvents for catalysts. Assuch, support materials can affect the spectral patterns produced bytheir solute catalysts.

Just as dissolved sugar can be placed into a solid phase solvent (ice),catalysts can be placed into support materials that are solid phasesolvents. These support material solid solvents can have similarspectral effects on catalysts that liquid solvents have. Supportmaterials can change spectral frequencies of their catalyst solutes by,for example, causing spectral curve broadening, changing of curveintensity, gradual or abrupt shifting of the resonant frequency f_(o),and even abrupt rearrangement of resonant frequencies.

Thus, due to the disclosure herein, it should become clear to an artisanof ordinary skill that changes in support materials can have dramaticeffects on catalyst activity. The support materials affect the spectralfrequencies produced by the catalysts. The changes in catalyst spectralfrequencies produce varying effects on chemical reactions and catalystactivity, including accelerating the rate of reaction and also guidingthe reaction on a particular reaction path. Thus support materials canpotentially influence the matching of frequencies and can thus favor thepossibility of transferring energy between reaction system componentsand/or spectral energy patterns, thus permitting certain reactions tooccur.

Poisoning

Poisoning of catalysts occurs when the catalyst activity is reduced byadding a small amount of another constituent, such as a chemicalspecies. The prior art has attributed poisoning to chemical species thatcontain excess electrons (e.g., electron donor materials) and toadsorption of poisons onto the physical catalyst surface where thepoison physically blocks reaction sites. However, neither of thesetheories satisfactorily explains poisoning.

Consider the case of nickel hydrogenation catalysts. These physicalcatalysts are substantially deactivated if only 0.1% sulphur compoundsby weight are adsorbed onto them. It is difficult to believe that 0.1%sulphur by weight could contribute so many electrons as to inactivatethe nickel catalyst. Likewise, it is difficult to believe that thepresence of 0.1% sulphur by weight occupies so many reaction sites thatit completely deactivates the catalyst. Accordingly, neither prior artexplanation is satisfying.

Poisoning phenomena can be more logically understood in terms ofspectral chemistry. In reference to the example in the Solvent Sectionusing a benzene solvent and phenylazophenol as the solute, in purebenzene the phenylazophenol had a spectral frequency of 865 Hz. Theaddition of just a few drops of alcohol (0.5%) abruptly changed thephenylazophenol frequency to 855. If the expectation was for thephenylazophenol to resonate at 865, then the alcohol would have poisonedthat particular reaction. The addition of small quantities of otherchemical species can change the resonant frequencies (f_(o)) ofcatalysts and reacting chemicals. The addition of another chemicalspecies can act as a poison to take the catalyst and reacting speciesout of resonance. (i.e., the presence of the additional species canremove any substantial overlapping of frequencies and thus prevent anysignificant transfer of energy).

Besides changing resonant frequencies of chemical species, adding smallamounts of other chemicals can also affect the spectral intensities ofthe catalyst and, for example, other atoms and molecules in the reactionsystem by either increasing or decreasing the spectral intensities.Consider cadmium and zinc mixed in an alumina-silica precipitate (seeFIG. 27 which shows the influences of copper and bismuth on thezinc/cadmium line ratio). A normal ratio between the cadmium 3252.5spectral line and the zinc 3345.0 spectral line was determined. Theaddition of sodium, potassium, lead, and magnesium had little or noeffect on the Cd/Zn intensity ratio. However, the addition of copperreduced the relative intensity of the zinc line and increased thecadmium intensity. Conversely, addition of bismuth increased therelative intensity of the zinc line while decreasing cadmium.

Also, consider the effect of small amounts of magnesium on acopper-aluminum mixture (see FIG. 28 which shows the influence ofmagnesium on the copper aluminum intensity ratio). Magnesium present at0.6%, caused significant reductions in line intensity for copper and foraluminum. At 1.4% magnesium, the spectral intensities for both copperand aluminum were reduced by about a third. If the copper frequency isimportant for catalyzing a reaction, adding this small amount ofmagnesium would dramatically reduce the catalyst activity. Thus, itcould be concluded that the copper catalyst had been poisoned by themagnesium.

In summary, poisoning effects on catalysts are due to spectral changes.Adding a small amount of another chemical species to a physical catalystand/or reaction system can change the resonance frequencies or thespectral intensities of one or more chemical species (e.g., reactant).The catalyst might remain the same, while a crucial intermediate ischanged. Likewise, the catalyst might change, while the intermediatestays the same. They might both change, or they might both stay the sameand be oblivious to the added poison species. This understanding isimportant to achieving the goals of the present invention which includetargeting species to cause an overlap in frequencies, or in thisinstance, specifically targeting one or more species so as to preventany substantial overlap in frequencies and thus prevent reactions fromoccurring by blocking the transfer of energy.

Promoters

Just as adding a small amount of another chemical species to a catalystand reaction system can poison the activity of the catalyst, theopposite can also happen. When an added species enhances the activity ofa catalyst, it is called a promoter. For instance, adding a few percentcalcium and potassium oxide to iron-alumina compounds promotes activityof the iron catalyst for ammonia synthesis. Promoters act by all themechanisms discussed previously in the Sections entitled Solvents,Support Materials, and Poisoning. Not surprisingly, some supportmaterials actually are promoters. Promoters enhance catalysts andspecific reactions and/or reaction pathways by changing spectralfrequencies and intensities. While a catalyst poison takes the reactingspecies out of resonance (i.e., the frequencies do not overlap), thepromoter brings them into resonance (i.e., the frequencies do overlap).Likewise, instead of reducing the spectral intensity of crucialfrequencies, the promoter may increase the crucial intensities.

Thus, if it was desired for phenylazophenol to react at 855 in a benzenesolvent, alcohol could be added and the alcohol would be termed apromoter. If it was desired for the phenylazophenol too react at 865,alcohol could be added and the alcohol could be considered a poison.Thus understood, the differences between poisons and promoters are amatter of perspective, and depend on which reaction pathways and/orreaction products are desired. They both act by the same underlyingspectral chemistry mechanisms of the present invention.

Concentration

Concentrations of chemical species are known to affect reaction ratesand dynamics. Concentration also affects catalyst activity. The priorart explains these effects by the probabilities that various chemicalspecies will collide with each other. At high concentrations of aparticular species, there are many individual atoms or moleculespresent. The more atoms or molecules present, the more likely they areto collide with something else. However, this statistical treatment bythe prior art does not explain the entire situation. FIG. 29 showsvarious concentrations of N-methyl urethane in a carbon tetrachloridesolution. At low concentrations, the spectral lines have a relativelylow intensity. However, as the concentration is increased, theintensities of the spectral curves increase also. At 0.01 molarity, thespectral curve at 3,460 cm⁻¹ is the only prominent frequency. However,at 0.15 molarity, the curves at 3,370 and 3,300 cm⁻¹ are also prominent.

As the concentration of a chemical species is changed, the spectralcharacter of that species in the reaction mixture changes also. Supposethat 3,300 and 3,370 cm⁻¹ are important frequencies for a desiredreaction pathway. At low concentrations the desired reaction pathwaywill not occur. However, if the concentrations are increased (and hencethe intensities of the relevant frequencies) the reaction will proceeddown the desired pathway. Concentration is also related to solvents,support structures, poisons and promoters, as previously discussed.

Fine Structure Frequencies

The field of science concerned generally with measuring the frequenciesof energy and matter, known as spectroscopy, has already been discussedherein. Specifically, the three broad classes of atomic and molecularspectra were reviewed. Electronic spectra, which are due to electrontransitions, have frequencies primarily in the ultraviolet (UV),visible, and infrared (IR) regions, and occur in atoms and molecules.Vibrational spectra, which are due to, for example, bond motion betweenindividual atoms within molecules, are primarily in the IR, and occur inmolecules. Rotational spectra are due primarily to rotation of moleculesin space and have microwave or radiowave frequencies, and also occur inmolecules.

The previous discussion of various spectra and spectroscopy has beenoversimplified. There are actually at least three additional sets ofspectra, which comprise the spectrum discussed above herein, namely, thefine structure spectra and the hyperfine structure spectra and thesuperfine structure spectra. These spectra occur in atoms and molecules,and extend, for example, from the ultraviolet down to the low radioregions. These spectra are often mentioned in prior art chemistry andspectroscopy books typically as an aside, because prior art chemiststypically focus more on the traditional types of spectroscopy, namely,electronic, vibrational, and rotational.

The fine and hyperfine spectra are quite prevalent in the areas ofphysics and radio astronomy. For example, cosmologists map the locationsof interstellar clouds of hydrogen, and collect data regarding theorigins of the universe by detecting signals from outerspace, forexample, at 1.420 GHz, a microwave frequency which is one of thehyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen. Most of the largedatabases concerning the microwave and radio frequencies of moleculesand atoms have been developed by astronomers and physicists, rather thanby chemists. This apparent gap between the use by chemists andphysicists, of the fine and hyperfine spectra in chemistry, hasapparently resulted in prior art chemists not giving much, if any,attention to these potentially useful spectra.

Referring again to FIGS. 9 a and 9 b, the Balmer series (i.e., frequencycurve II), begins with a frequency of 456 THz (see FIG. 30 a). Closerexamination of this individual frequency shows that instead of therebeing just one crisp narrow curve at 456 THz, there are really sevendifferent curves very close together that comprise the curve at 456 THz.The seven (7) different curves are fine structure frequencies. FIG. 30 bshows the emission spectrum for the 456 THz curve in hydrogen. Ahigh-resolution laser saturation spectrum, shown in FIG. 31, gives evenmore detail. These seven different curves, which are positioned veryclose together, are generally referred to as a multiplet.

Although there are seven different fine structure frequencies shown,these seven frequencies are grouped around two major frequencies. Theseare the two, tall, relatively high intensity curves shown in FIG. 30 b.These two high intensity curves are also shown in FIG. 31 at zero cm⁻¹(456.676 THz), and at relative wavenumber 0.34 cm⁻¹ (456.686 THz). Whatappears to be a single frequency of (456 THz), is actually composedpredominantly of two slightly different frequencies (456.676 and 456.686THz), and the two frequencies are typically referred to as doublet andthe frequencies are said to be split. The difference or split betweenthe two predominant frequencies in the hydrogen 456 THz doublet is 0.010THz (100 THz) or 0.34 cm⁻¹ wavnumbers. This difference frequency, 10GHz, is called the fine splitting frequency for the 456 THz frequency ofhydrogen.

Thus, the individual frequencies that are typically shown in ordinaryelectronic spectra are composed of two or more distinct frequenciesspaced very close together. The distinct frequencies spaced very closetogether are called fine structure frequencies. The difference, betweentwo fine structure frequencies that are split apart by a very slightamount, is a fine splitting frequency (see FIG. 32 which shows f₁ and f₂which comprise f_(o) and which are shown as underneath f_(o). Thedifference between f₁ and f₂ is known as the fine splitting frequency).This “difference” between two fine structure frequencies is importantbecause such a difference between any two frequencies is a heterodyne.

Almost all the hydrogen frequencies shown in FIGS. 9 a and 9 b aredoublets or multiplets. This means that almost all the hydrogenelectronic spectrum frequencies have fine structure frequencies and finesplitting frequencies (which means that these heterodynes are availableto be used as spectral catalysts, if desired). The present inventiondiscloses that these “differences” or heterodynes can be quite usefulfor certain reactions. However, prior to discussing the use of theseheterodynes, in the present invention, more must be understood aboutthese heterodynes. Some of the fine splitting frequencies (i.e.,heterodynes) for hydrogen are listed in Table 3. These fine splittingheterodynes range from the microwave down into the upper reaches of theradio frequency region.

TABLE 3 Fine Splitting Frequencies for Hydrogen Frequency WavenumberFine Splitting (THz) Orbital (cm⁻¹) Frequency 2,466 2p 0.365 10.87 GHz 456 n2→3 0.340 10.02 GHz  2,923 3p 0.108 3.23 GHz 2,923 3d 0.036 1.06GHz 3,082 4p 0.046 1.38 GHz 3,082 4d 0.015 448.00 MHz  3,082 4f 0.008239.00 MHz 

There are more than 23 fine splitting frequencies (i.e., heterodynes)for just the first series or curve I in hydrogen. Lists of the finesplitting heterodynes can be found, for example, in the classic 1949reference “Atomic Energy Levels” by Charlotte Moore. This reference alsolists 133 fine splitting heterodyned intervals for carbon, whosefrequencies range from 14.1 THz (473.3 cm⁻¹) down to 12.2. GHz (0.41cm⁻¹). Oxygen has 287 fine splitting heterodynes listed from 15.9 THz(532.5 cm⁻¹) down to 3.88 GHz (0.13 cm⁻¹). The 23 platinum finesplitting intervals detailed are from 23.3 THz (775.9 cm⁻¹) to 8.62 THzin frequency (287.9 cm⁻¹).

Diagrammatically, the magnification and resolution of an electronicfrequency into several closely spaced fine frequencies is depicted inFIG. 33. The electronic orbit is designated by the orbital number n=0,1, 2, etc. The fine structure is designated as α. A quantum diagram forthe hydrogen fine structure is shown in FIG. 34. Specifically, shown isthe fine structure of the n=1 and n=2 levels of the hydrogen atom. FIG.35 shows the multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels ofcarbon, oxygen, and fluorine, as represented by “C”, “O” and “F”,respectively.

In addition to the fine splitting frequencies for atoms (i.e.,heterodynes), molecules also have similar fine structure frequencies.The origin and derivation for molecular fine structure and splitting isdifferent from that for atoms, however, the graphical and practicalresults are quite similar. In atoms, the fine structure frequencies aresaid to result from the interaction of the spinning electron with its'own magnetic field. Basically, this means the electron cloud of a singleatomic sphere, rotating and interacting with its' own magnetic field,produces the atomic fine structure frequencies. The prior art refers tothis phenomena as “spin-orbit coupling”. For molecules, the finestructure frequencies correspond to the actual rotational frequencies ofthe electronic or vibrational frequencies. So the fine structurefrequencies for atoms and molecules both result from rotation. In thecase of atoms, it is the atom spinning and rotating around itself, muchthe way the earth rotates around its axis. In the case of molecules, itis the molecule spinning and rotating through space.

FIG. 36 shows the infrared absorption spectrum of the SF₆ vibration bandnear 28.3 THz (10.6 μm wavelength, wavenumber 948 cm⁻¹) of the SF₆molecule. The molecule is highly symmetrical and rotates somewhat like atop. The spectral tracing was obtained with a high resolution gratingspectrometer. There is a broad band between 941 and 952 cm⁻¹ (28.1 and28.5 THz) with three sharp spectral curves at 946, 947, and 948 cm⁻¹(28.3, 28.32, and 23.834 THz).

FIG. 37 a shows a narrow slice being taken from between 949 and 950cm⁻¹, which is blown up to show more detail in FIG. 37 b. A tunablesemiconductor diode laser was used to obtain the detail. There are manymore spectral curves which appear when the spectrum is reviewed in finerdetail. These curves are called the fine structure frequencies for thismolecule. The total energy of an atom or molecule is the sum of its'electronic, vibrational, and rotational energies. Thus, the simplePlanck equation discussed previously herein:

E=hv

can be rewritten as follows:

E=E _(e)+E_(v)+E_(r)

where E is the total energy, E_(e) is the electronic energy, E_(v) isthe vibrational energy, and E_(r) is the rotational energy.Diagrammatically, this equation is shown in FIG. 38 for molecules. Theelectronic energy, E_(e), involves a change in the orbit of one of theelectrons in the molecule. It is designated by the orbital number n=0,1, 2, 3, etc. The vibrational energy, E_(v), is produced by a change inthe vibration rate between two atoms within the molecule, and isdesignated by a vibrational number v=1, 2, 3, etc. Lastly, therotational energy, E_(r), is the energy of rotation caused by themolecule rotating around its' center of mass. The rotational energy isdesignated by the quantum number J=1, 2, and 3, etc., as determined fromangular momentum equations.

Thus, by examining the vibrational frequencies of SF₆ in more detail,the fine structure molecular frequencies become apparent. These finestructure frequencies are actually produced by the molecular rotations,“J”, as a subset of each vibrational frequency. Just as the rotationallevels “J” are substantially evenly separated in FIG. 38, they are alsosubstantially evenly separated when plotted as frequencies.

This concept may be easier to understand by viewing some additionalfrequency diagrams. For example, FIG. 39 a shows the pure rotationalabsorption spectrum for gaseous hydrogen-chloride and FIG. 39 b showsthe same spectrum at low resolution. In FIG. 39 a, the separate waves,that look something like teeth on a “comb”, correspond to the individualrotational frequencies. The complete wave (i.e., that wave comprisingthe whole comb) that extends in frequency from 20 to 500 cm⁻¹corresponds to the entire vibrational frequency. At low resolution ormagnification, this set of rotational frequencies appear to be a singlefrequency peaking at about 20 cm⁻¹ (598 GHz) (see FIG. 39 b). This isvery similar to the way atomic frequencies such as the 456 THz hydrogenfrequency appear (i.e., just one frequency at low resolution, that turnout to be several different frequencies at higher magnification).

In FIG. 40, the rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structure) of hydrogencyanide is shown, where “J” is the rotational level. Note again, theregular spacing of the rotational levels. (Note that this spectrum isoriented opposite of what is typical). This spectrum uses transmissionrather than emission on the horizontal Y-axis, thus, intensity increasesdownward on the Y-axis, rather than upwards.

Additionally, FIG. 41 shows the v₁-v₅ vibrational bands for FCCF (wherev₁ is vibrational level 1 and v₅ vibrational level 5) which includes aplurality of rotational frequencies. All of the fine sawtooth spikes arethe fine structure frequencies which correspond to the rotationalfrequencies. Note, the substantially regular spacing of the rotationalfrequencies. Also note, the undulating pattern of the rotationalfrequency intensity, as well as the alternating pattern of therotational frequency intensities.

Consider the actual rotational frequencies (i.e., fine structurefrequencies) for the ground state of carbon monoxide listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Rotational Frequencies and Derived Rotational Constant for CO inthe Ground State J Transition Frequency (MHz) Frequency (GHz) 0 → 1115,271.204 115 1 → 2 230,537.974 230 2 → 3 345,795.989 346 3 → 4461,040.811 461 4 → 5 576,267.934 576 5 → 6 691,472.978 691 6 → 7806,651.719 807 Where; B_(o) = 57,635.970 MHz

Each of the rotational frequencies is regularly spaced at approximately115 GHz apart. Prior art quantum theorists would explain this regularspacing as being due to the fact that the rotational frequencies arerelated to Planck's constant and the moment of inertia (i.e., center ofmass for the molecule) by the equation:

$B = \frac{h}{8\; \pi^{2}I}$

where B is the rotational constant, h is Planck's constant, and I is themoment of inertia for the molecule. From there the prior art establisheda frequency equation for the rotational levels that corresponds to:

f=2B(J+1)

where f is the frequency, B is the rotational constant, and J is therotational level. Thus, the rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structurespectrum) for a molecule turns out to be a harmonic series of lines withthe frequencies all spaced or split (i.e., heterodyned) by the sameamount. This amount has been referred to in the prior art as “2B”, and“B” has been referred to as the “rotational constant”. In existingcharts and databases of molecular frequencies, “B” is usually listed asa frequency such as MHz. This is graphically represented for the firstfour rotational frequencies for CO in FIG. 42.

This fact is interesting for several reasons. The rotational constant“B”, listed in many databases, is equal to one half of the differencebetween rotational frequencies for a molecule. That means that B is thefirst subharmonic frequency, to the fundamental frequency “2B”, which isthe heterodyned difference between all the rotational frequencies. Therotational constant B listed for carbon monoxide is 57.6 GHz (57,635.970MHz). This is basically half of the 115 GHz difference between therotational frequencies. Thus, according to the present invention, if itis desired to stimulate a molecule's rotational levels, the amount “2B”can be used, because it is the fundamental first generation heterodyne.Alternatively, the same “B” can be used because “B” corresponds to thefirst subharmonic of that heterodyne.

Further, the prior art teaches that if it is desired to use microwavesfor stimulation, the microwave frequencies used will be restricted tostimulating levels at or near the ground state of the molecule (i.e.,n=0 in FIG. 38). The prior art teaches that as you progress upward inFIG. 38 to the higher electronic and vibrational levels, the requiredfrequencies will correspond to the infrared, visible, and ultravioletregions. However, the prior art is wrong about this point.

By referring to FIG. 38 again, it is clear that the rotationalfrequencies are evenly spaced out no matter what electronic orvibrational level is under scrutiny. The even spacing shown in FIG. 38is due to the rotational frequencies being evenly spaced as progressionis made upwards through all the higher vibrational and electroniclevels. Table 5 lists the rotational frequencies for lithium fluoride(LiF) at several different rotational and vibrational levels.

TABLE 5 Rotational Frequencies for Lithium Fluoride (LiF) VibrationalRotational Level Transition Frequency (MHz) 0 0 → 1 89,740.46 0 1 → 2179,470.35 0 2 → 3 269,179.18 0 3 → 4 358,856.19 0 4 → 5 448,491.07 0 5→ 6 538,072.65 1 0 → 1 88,319.18 1 1 → 2 176,627.91 1 2 → 3 264,915.79 13 → 4 353,172.23 1 4 → 5 441,386.83 2 0 → 1 86,921.20 2 1 → 2 173,832.042 2 → 3 260,722.24 2 3 → 4 347,581.39 3 1 → 2 171,082.27 3 2 → 3256,597.84 3 3 → 4 342,082.66

It is clear from Table 5 that the differences between rotationalfrequencies, no matter what the vibrational level, is about 86,000 toabout 89,000 MHz (i.e., 86-89 GHz). Thus, according to the presentinvention, by using a microwave frequency between about 86,000 MHz and89,000 MHz, the molecule can be stimulated from the ground state levelall the way up to its' highest energy levels. This effect has not beeneven remotely suggested by the prior art. Specifically, the rotationalfrequencies of molecules can be manipulated in a unique manner. Thefirst rotational level has a natural oscillatory frequency (NOF) of89,740 MHz. The second rotational level has an NOF of 179,470 MHz. Thus,

NOF_(rotational 1→2)−NOF_(rotational 0→1)=SubtractedFrequency_(rotational 2-1);

or

179,470 MHz−89,740 MHz=89,730 MHz.

Thus, the present invention has discovered that the NOF's of therotational frequencies heterodyne by adding and subtracting in a mannersimilar to the manner that all frequencies heterodyne. Specifically, thetwo rotational frequencies heterodyne to produce a subtracted frequency.This subtracted frequency happens to be exactly twice as big as thederived rotational constant “B” listed in nuclear physics andspectroscopy manuals. Thus, when the first rotational frequency in themolecule is stimulated with the Subtracted Frequency_(rotational 2-1),the first rotational frequency will heterodyne (i.e., in this case add)with the NOF_(rotational 0→1) (i.e., first rotational frequency) toproduce NOF_(rotational 1→2), which is the natural oscillatory frequencyof the molecule's second rotational level. In other words:

SubtractedFrequency_(rotational 2-1)+NOF_(rotational 0→1)=NOF_(rotational 1→2);

or

89,730 MHz+89,740 MHz=179,470 MHz

Since the present invention has disclosed that the rotationalfrequencies are actually evenly spaced harmonics, the subtractedfrequency will also add with the second level NOF to produce the thirdlevel NOF. The subtracted frequency will add with the third level NOF toproduce the fourth level NOF. And so on and so on. Thus, according tothe present invention, by using one single microwave frequency, it ispossible to stimulate all the rotational levels in a vibratory band.

Moreover, if all the rotational levels for a vibrational frequency areexcited, then the vibrational frequency will also be correspondinglyexcited. Further, if all the vibrational levels for an electronic levelare excited, then the electronic level will be excited as well. Thus,according to the teachings of the present invention, it is possible toexcite the highest levels of the electronic and vibrational structure ofa molecule by using a single microwave frequency. This is contrary tothe prior art teachings that the use of microwaves is restricted to theground state of the molecule. Specifically, if the goal is to resonatedirectly with an upper vibrational or electronic level, the prior artteaches that microwave frequencies can not be used. If, however,according to the present invention, a catalytic mechanism of action isinitiated by, for example, resonating with target species indirectlythrough heterodynes, then one or more microwave frequencies can be usedto energize at least one upper level vibrational or electronic state.Accordingly, by using the teachings of the present invention inconjunction with the simple processes of heterodyning it becomes readilyapparent that microwave frequencies are not limited to the ground statelevels of molecules.

The present invention has determined that catalysts can actuallystimulate target species indirectly by utilizing at least one heterodynefrequency (e.g., harmonic). However, catalysts can also stimulate thetarget species by direct resonance with at least one fundamentalfrequency of interest. However, the rotational frequencies can result inuse of both mechanisms. For example, FIG. 42 shows a graphicalrepresentation of fine structure spectrum showing the first fourrotational frequencies for CO in the ground state. The first rotationalfrequency for CO is 115 GHz. The heterodyned difference betweenrotational frequencies is also 115 GHz. The first rotational frequencyand the heterodyned difference between frequencies are identical. All ofthe upper level rotational frequencies are harmonics of the firstfrequency. This relationship is not as apparent when one deals only withthe rotational constant “B” of the prior art. However, frequency-basedspectral chemistry analyses, like those of the present invention, makessuch concepts easier to understand.

Examination of the first level rotational frequencies for LiF shows thatit is nearly identical to the heterodyned difference between it and thesecond level rotational frequency. The rotational frequencies aresequential harmonics of the first rotational frequency. Accordingly, ifa molecule is stimulated with a frequency equal to 2B (i.e., aheterodyned harmonic difference between rotational frequencies) thepresent invention teaches that energy will resonate with all the upperrotational frequencies indirectly through heterodynes, and resonatedirectly with the first rotational frequency. This is an importantdiscovery.

The prior art discloses a number of constants used in spectroscopy thatrelate in some way or another to the frequencies of atoms and molecule,just as the rotational constant “B” relates to the harmonic spacing ofrotational fine structure molecular frequencies. The alpha (α)rotation-vibration constant is a good example of this. The alpharotation-vibration frequency constant is related to slight changes inthe frequencies for the same rotational level, when the vibrationallevel changes. For example, FIG. 43 a shows the frequencies for the samerotational levels, but different vibrational levels for LiF. Thefrequencies are almost the same, but vary by a few percent between thedifferent vibrational levels.

Referring to FIG. 43 b, the differences between all the frequencies forthe various rotational transitions at different vibrational levels ofFIG. 43 a are shown. The rotational transition 0→1 in the top line ofFIG. 43 b has a frequency of 89,740.46 MHz at vibrational level 0. Atvibrational level 1, the 0→1 transition is 88,319.18 MHz. The differencebetween these two rotational frequencies is 1,421.28 MHz. At vibrationallevel 2, the 0→1 transition is 86,921.20 MHz. The difference between itand the vibrational level 1 frequency (88,319.18 MHz) is 1,397.98 MHz.These slight differences for the same J rotational level betweendifferent vibrational levels are nearly identical. For the J=0→1rotational level they center around a frequency of 1,400 MHz.

For the J=1→2 transition, the differences center around 2,800 Hz, andfor the J=2→3 transition, the differences center around 4,200 Hz. Thesedifferent frequencies of 1,400, 2,800 and 4,200 Hz etc., are allharmonics of each other. Further, they are all harmonics of the alpharotation-vibration constant. Just as the actual molecular rotationalfrequencies are harmonics of the rotational constant B, the differencesbetween the rotational frequencies are harmonics of the alpharotation-vibration constant. Accordingly, if a molecule is stimulatedwith a frequency equal to the alpha vibration-rotation frequencies, thepresent invention teaches that energy will resonate with all therotational frequencies indirectly through heterodynes. This is animportant discovery.

Consider the rotational and vibrational states for the triatomicmolecule OCS shown in FIG. 44. FIG. 44 shows the same rotational level(J=1→2) for different vibrational states in the OCS molecule. For theground vibrational (000) level, J=1→2 transition; and the excitedvibrational state (100) J=1→2 transition, the difference between the twofrequencies is equal to 4 X alpha₁ (4α₁). In another excited state, thefrequency difference between the ground vibrational (000) level, J=1→2transition, and the center of the two l-type doublets is 4X alpha₂(4α₂). In a higher excited vibrational state, the frequency differencebetween (000) and (02°0) is 8X alpha₂ (8α₂). Thus, it can be seen thatthe rotation-vibration constants “α” are actually harmonics of molecularfrequencies. Thus, according to the present invention, stimulating amolecule with an “α” frequency, or a harmonic of “α”, will eitherdirectly resonate with or indirectly heterodyne harmonically withvarious rotational-vibrational frequencies of the molecule.

Another interesting constant is the l-type doubling constant. Thisconstant is also shown in FIG. 44. Specifically, FIG. 44 shows therotational transition J=1→2 for the triatomic molecule OCS. Just as theatomic frequencies are sometimes split into doublets or multiplets, therotational frequencies are also sometimes split into doublets. Thedifference between them is called the l-type doubling constant. Theseconstants are usually smaller (i.e., of a lower frequency) than the αconstants. For the OCS molecule, the α constants are 20.56 and 10.56 MHzwhile the l-type doubling constant is 6.3 MHz. These frequencies are allin the radiowave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

As discussed previously herein, energy is transferred by two fundamentalfrequency mechanisms. If frequencies are substantially the same ormatch, then energy transfers by direct resonance. Energy can alsotransfer indirectly by heterodyning, (i.e., the frequenciessubstantially match after having been added or subtracted with anotherfrequency). Further, as previously stated, the direct or indirectresonant frequencies do not have to match exactly. If they are merelyclose, significant amounts of energy will still transfer. Any of theseconstants or frequencies that are related to molecules or other mattervia heterodynes, can be used to transfer, for example, energy to thematter and hence can directly interact with the matter.

In the reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form water,the present invention teaches that the energizing of the reactionintermediates of atomic hydrogen and the hydroxy radical are crucial tosustaining the reaction. In this regard, the physical catalyst platinumenergizes both reaction intermediates by directly and indirectlyresonating with them. Platinum also energizes the intermediates atmultiple energy levels, creating the conditions for energyamplification. The present invention also teaches how to copy platinum'smechanism of action by making use of atomic fine structure frequencies.

The invention has previously discussed resonating with the finestructure frequencies with only slight variations between thefrequencies (e.g., 456.676 and 456.686 THz). However, indirectlyresonating with the fine structure frequencies, is a significantdifference. Specifically, by using the fine splitting frequencies, whichare simply the differences or heterodynes between the fine structurefrequencies, the present invention teaches that indirect resonance canbe achieved. By examining the hydrogen 456 THz fine structure and finesplitting frequencies (see, for example, FIGS. 30 and 31 and Table 3many heterodynes are shown). In other words, the difference between thefine structure frequencies can be calculated as follows:

456.686 THz−456.676 THz=0.0102 THz=10.2 GHz

Thus, if hydrogen atoms are subjected to 10.2 GHz electromagnetic energy(i.e., energy corresponding to microwaves), then the 456 THz electronicspectrum frequency is energized by resonating with it indirectly. Inother words, the 10.2 GHz will add to 456.676 THz to produce theresonant frequency of 456.686 THz. The 10.2 GHz will also subtract fromthe 456.686 THz to produce the resonant frequency of 456.676 THz. Thus,by introducing 10.2 GHz to a hydrogen atom, the hydrogen atom is excitedat the 456 THz frequency. A microwave frequency can be used to stimulatean electronic level.

According to the present invention, it is also possible to use acombination of mimicked catalyst mechanisms. For example, it is possibleto: 1) resonate with the hydrogen atom frequencies indirectly throughheterodynes (i.e., fine splitting frequencies); and/or 2) resonate withthe hydrogen atom at multiple frequencies. Such multiple resonatingcould occur using a combination of microwave frequencies eithersimultaneously, in sequence, and/or in chirps or bursts. For example,the individual microwave fine splitting frequencies for hydrogen of10.87 GHz, 10.2 GHz, 3.23 GHz, 1.38 GHz, and 1.06 GHz could be used in asequence. Further, there are many fine splitting frequencies forhydrogen that have not been expressly included herein, thus, dependingon the frequency range of equipment available, the present inventionprovides a means for tailoring the chosen frequencies to thecapabilities of the available equipment. Thus, the flexibility accordingto the teachings of the present invention is enormous.

Another method to deliver multiple electromagnetic energy frequenciesaccording to the present invention, is to use a lower frequency as acarrier wave for a higher frequency. This can be done, for example, byproducing 10.2 GHz EM energy in short bursts, with the bursts coming ata rate of about 239 MHz. Both of these frequencies are fine splittingfrequencies for hydrogen. This can also be achieved by continuouslydelivering EM energy and by varying the amplitude at a rate of about 239MHz. These techniques can be used alone or in combination with thevarious other techniques disclosed herein.

Thus, by mimicking one or more mechanisms of action of catalysts and bymaking use of the atomic fine structure and splitting frequencies, it ispossible to energize upper levels of atoms using microwave and radiowavefrequencies. Accordingly, by selectively energizing or targetingparticular atoms, it is possible to catalyze and guide desirablereactions to desired end products. Depending on the circumstances, theoption to use lower frequencies may have many advantages. Lowerfrequencies typically have much better penetration into large reactionspaces and volumes, and may be better suited to large-scale industrialapplications. Lower frequencies may be easier to deliver with portable,compact equipment, as opposed to large, bulky equipment which delivershigher frequencies (e.g., lasers). The choice of frequencies of aspectral catalyst may be for as simple a reason as to avoid interferencefrom other sources of EM energy. Thus, according to the presentinvention, an understanding of the basic processes of heterodyning andfine structure splitting frequencies confers greater flexibility indesigning and applying spectral energy catalysts in a targeted manner.Specifically, rather than simply reproducing the spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst, the present invention teaches that is possible tomake full use of the entire range of frequencies in the electromagneticspectrum, so long as the teachings of the present invention arefollowed. Thus, certain desirable frequencies can be applied while othernot so desirable frequencies could be left out of an applied spectralenergy catalyst targeted to a particular participant and/or component inthe reaction system.

As a further example, reference is again made to the hydrogen and oxygenreaction for the formation of water. If it is desired to catalyze thewater reaction by duplicating the catalyst's mechanism of action in themicrowave region, the present invention teaches that several options areavailable. Another such option is use of the knowledge that platinumenergizes the reaction intermediates of the hydroxy radical. In additionto the hydrogen atom, the B frequency for the hydroxy radical is 565.8GHz. That means that the actual heterodyned difference between therotational frequencies is 2B, or 1,131.6 GHz. Accordingly, such afrequency could be utilized to achieve excitement of the hydroxy radicalintermediate.

Further, the α constant for the hydroxy radical is 21.4 GHz.Accordingly, this frequency could also be applied to energizing thehydroxy radical. Thus, by introducing hydrogen and oxygen gases into achamber and irradiating the gases with 21.4 GHz, water will be formed.This particular gigahertz energy is a harmonic heterodyne of therotational frequencies for the same rotational level but differentvibrational levels. The heterodyned frequency energizes all therotational frequencies, which energize the vibrational levels, whichenergize the electronic frequencies, which catalyze the reaction.Accordingly, the aforementioned reaction could be catalyzed or targetedwith a spectral catalyst applied at several applicable frequencies, allof which match with one or more frequencies in one or more participantsand thus permit energy to transfer.

Still further, delivery of frequencies of 565.8 GHz, or even 1,131.6GHz, would result in substantially all of the rotational levels in themolecule becoming energized, from the ground state all the way up. Thisapproach copies a catalyst mechanism of action in two ways. The firstway is by energizing the hydroxy radical and sustaining a crucialreaction intermediate to catalyze the formation of water. The secondmechanism copied from the catalyst is to energize multiple levels in themolecule. Because the rotational constant “B” relates to the rotationalfrequencies, heterodynes occur at all levels in the molecule. Thus,using the frequency “B” energizes all levels in the molecule. Thispotentiates the establishment of an energy amplification system such asthat which occurs with the physical catalyst platinum.

Still further, if a molecule was energized with a frequencycorresponding to an l-type doubling constant, such frequency could beused in a substantially similar manner in which a fine splittingfrequency from an atomic spectrum is used. The difference between thetwo frequencies in a doublet is a heterodyne, and energizing the doubletwith its' heterodyne frequency (i.e., the splitting frequency) wouldenergize the basic frequency and catalyze the reaction.

A still further example utilizes a combination of frequencies for atomicfine structure. For instance, by utilizing a constant central frequencyof 1,131.6 GHz (i.e., the heterodyned difference between rotationalfrequencies for a hydroxy radical) with a vibrato varying around thecentral frequency by ±21.4 GHz (i.e., the α constant harmonic forvariations between rotational frequencies), use could be made of 1.131.6GHz EM energy in short bursts, with the bursts coming at a rate of 21.4GHz.

Since there is slight variation between rotational frequencies for thesame level, that frequency range can be used to construct bursts. Forexample, if the largest “B” is 565.8 GHz, then a rotational frequencyheterodyne corresponds to 1,131.6 GHz. If the smallest “B” is 551.2 GHz,this corresponds to a rotational frequency heterodyne of 1,102 GHz.Thus, “chirps” or bursts of energy starting at 1,100 GHz and increasingin frequency to 1,140 GHz, could be used. In fact, the transmitter couldbe set to “chirp” or burst at a rate of 21.4 GHz.

In any event, there are many ways to make use of the atomic andmolecular fine structure frequencies, with their attendant heterodynesand harmonics. An understanding of catalyst mechanisms of action enablesone of ordinary skill armed with the teachings of the present inventionto utilize a spectral catalyst from the high frequency ultraviolet andvisible light regions, down into the sometimes more manageable microwaveand radiowave regions. Moreover, the invention enables an artisan ofordinary skill to calculate and/or determine the effects of microwaveand radiowave energies on chemical reactions and/or reaction pathways.

Hyperfine Frequencies

Hyperfine structure frequencies are similar to the fine structurefrequencies. Fine structure frequencies can be seen by magnifying aportion of a standard frequency spectrum. Hyperfine frequencies can beseen by magnifying a portion of a fine structure spectrum. Finestructure splitting frequencies occur at lower frequencies than theelectronic spectra, primarily in the infrared and microwave regions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum. Hyperfine splitting frequencies occur ateven lower frequencies than the fine structure spectra, primarily in themicrowave and radio wave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Finestructure frequencies are generally caused by at least the electroninteracting with its' own magnetic field. Hyperfine frequencies aregenerally caused by at least the electron interacting with the magneticfield of the nucleus.

FIG. 36 shows the rotation-vibration band frequency spectra for an SF₆molecule. The rotation-vibration band and fine structure are shown againin FIG. 45. However, the fine structure frequencies are seen bymagnifying a small section of the standard vibrational band spectrum(i.e., the lower portion of FIG. 45 shows some of the fine structurefrequencies). In many respects, looking at fine structure frequencies islike using a magnifying glass to look at a standard spectrum.Magnification of what looks like a flat and uninteresting portion of astandard vibrational frequency band shows many more curves with lowerfrequency splitting. These many other curves are the fine structurecurves. Similarly, by magnifying a small and seemingly uninterestingportion of the fine structure spectrum of the result is yet anotherspectrum of many more curves known as the hyperfine spectrum.

A small portion (i.e., from zero to 300) of the SF₆ fine structurespectrum is magnified in FIG. 46. The hyperfine spectrum includes manycurves split part by even lower frequencies. This time the finestructure spectrum was magnified instead of the regular vibrationalspectrum. What is found is even more curves, even closer together. FIGS.47 a and 47 b show a further magnification of the two curves marked withasterisks (i.e., “*” and “**”) in FIG. 46.

What appears to be a single crisp curve in FIG. 46, turns out to be aseries of several curves spaced very close together. These are thehyperfine frequency curves. Accordingly, the fine structure spectra iscomprised of several more curves spaced very close together. These othercurves spaced even closer together correspond to the hyperfinefrequencies.

FIGS. 47 a and 47 b show that the spacing of the hyperfine frequencycurves are very close together and at somewhat regular intervals. Thesmall amount that the hyperfine curves are split apart is called thehyperfine splitting frequency. The hyperfine splitting frequency is alsoa heterodyne. This concept is substantially similar to the concept ofthe fine splitting frequency. The difference between two curves that aresplit apart is called a splitting frequency. As before, the differencebetween two curves is referred to as a heterodyne frequency. So,hyperfine splitting frequencies are all heterodynes of hyperfinefrequencies.

Because the hyperfine frequency curves result from a magnification ofthe fine structure curves, the hyperfine splitting frequencies occur atonly a fraction of the fine structure splitting frequencies. The finestructure splitting frequencies are really just several curves, spacedvery close together around the regular spectrum frequency. Magnificationof fine structure splitting frequencies results in hyperfine splittingfrequencies. The hyperfine splitting frequencies are really just severalmore curves, spaced very close together. The closer together the curvesare, the smaller the distance or frequency separating them. Now thedistance separating any two curves is a heterodyne frequency. So, thecloser together any two curves are, the smaller (lower) is theheterodyne frequency between them. The distance between hyperfinesplitting frequencies (i.e., the amount that hyperfine frequencies aresplit apart) is the hyperfine splitting frequency. It can also be calleda constant or interval.

The electronic spectrum frequency of hydrogen is 2,466 THz. The 2,466THz frequency is made up of fine structure curves spaced 10.87 GHz(0.01087 THz) apart. Thus, the fine splitting frequency is 10.87 GHz.Now the fine structure curves are made up of hyperfine curves. Thesehyperfine curves are spaced just 23.68 and 59.21 MHz apart. Thus, 23 and59 MHz are both hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen. Otherhyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen include 2.71, 4.21, 7.02,17.55, 52.63, 177.64, and 1,420.0 MHz. The hyperfine splittingfrequencies are spaced even closer together than the fine structuresplitting frequencies, so the hyperfine splitting frequencies aresmaller and lower than the fine splitting frequencies.

Thus, the hyperfine splitting frequencies are lower than the finesplitting frequencies. This means that rather than being in the infraredand microwave regions, as the fine splitting frequencies can be, thehyperfine splitting frequencies are in the microwave and radiowaveregions. These lower frequencies are in the MHz (10⁶ hertz) and Khz (10³hertz) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Several of the hyperfinesplitting frequencies for hydrogen are shown in FIG. 48. (FIG. 48 showshyperfine structure in the n=2 to n=3 transition of hydrogen).

FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine frequencies for CH₃I. These frequencies area magnification of the fine structure frequencies for that molecule.Since fine structure frequencies for molecules are actually rotationalfrequencies, what is shown is actually the hyperfine splitting ofrotational frequencies. FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine splitting of justthe J=1→2 rotational transition. The splitting between the two tallestcurves is less than 100 MHz.

FIG. 50 shows another example of the molecule ClCN. This set ofhyperfine frequencies is from the J=1→2 transition of the groundvibrational state for ClCN. Notice that the hyperfine frequencies areseparated by just a few megahertz, (MHz) and in a few places by lessthan even one megahertz.

The energy-level diagram and spectrum of the J=½→3/2 rotationaltransition for NO is shown if FIG. 51.

In FIG. 52, the hyperfine splitting frequencies for NH₃ are shown.Notice that the frequencies are spaced so close together that the scaleat the bottom is in kilohertz (Kc/sec). The hyperfine features of thelines were obtained using a beam spectrometer.

Just as with fine splitting frequencies, the hyperfine splittingfrequencies are heterodynes of atomic and molecular frequencies.Accordingly, if an atom or molecule is stimulated with a frequency equalto a hyperfine splitting frequency (a heterodyned difference betweenhyperfine frequencies), the present invention teaches that the energywill equal to a hyperfine splitting frequency will resonate with thehyperfine frequencies indirectly through heterodynes. The relatedrotational, vibrational, and/or electronic energy levels will, in turn,be stimulated. This is an important discovery. It allows one to use moreradio and microwave frequencies to selectively stimulate and targetspecific reaction system components (e.g., atomic hydrogen intermediatescan be stimulated with, for example, (2.55, 23.68 59.2 and/or 1,420MHz).

Hyperfine frequencies, like fine frequencies, also contain features suchas doublets. Specifically, in a region where one would expect to findonly a single hyperfine frequency curve, there are two curves instead.Typically, one on either side of the location where a single hyperfinefrequency was expected. Hyperfine doubling is shown in FIGS. 53 and 54.This hyperfine spectrum is also from NH₃. FIG. 53 corresponds to the J=3rotational level and FIG. 54 corresponds to the J=4 rotational level.The doubling can be seen most easily in the J=3 curves (i.e., FIG. 53).There are two sets of short curves, a tall one, and then two more shortsets. Each of the short sets of curves is generally located where onewould expect to find just one curve. There are two curves instead, oneon either side of the main curve location. Each set of curves is ahyperfine doublet.

There are different notations to indicate the source of the doublingsuch as l-type doubling, K doubling, and Λ doubling, etc., and they allhave their own constants or intervals. Without going into the detailedtheory behind the formation of various types of doublets, the intervalbetween any two hyperfine multiplet curves is also a heterodyne, andthus all of these doubling constants represent frequency heterodynes.Accordingly, those frequency heterodynes (i.e., hyperfine constants) canalso be used as spectral energy catalysts according to the presentinvention.

Specifically, a frequency in an atom or molecule can be stimulateddirectly or indirectly. If the goal was to stimulate the 2,466 THzfrequency of hydrogen for some reason, then, for example, an ultravioletlaser could irradiate the hydrogen with 2,466 THz electromagneticradiation. This would stimulate the atom directly. However, if such alaser was unavailable, then hydrogen's fine structure splittingfrequency of 10.87 GHz could be achieved with microwave equipment. Thegigahertz frequency would heterodyne (i.e., add or subtract) with thetwo closely spaced fine structure curves at 2,466, and stimulate the2,466 THz frequency band. This would stimulate the atom indirectly.

Still further, the atom could be stimulated by using the hyperfinesplitting frequency for hydrogen at 23.68 MHz as produced by radiowaveequipment. The 23.68 MHz frequency would heterodyne (i.e., add orsubtract) with the two closely spaced hyperfine frequency curves at2,466, and stimulate the fine structure curves at the 2,466 THz.Stimulation of the fine structure curves would in turn lead tostimulation of the 2,466 THz electronic frequency for the hydrogen atom.

Still further, additional hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogenin the radiowave and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrumcould also be used to stimulate the atom. For example, a radio wavepattern with 2.7 MHz, 4.2 MHz, 7 MHz, 18 MHz, 23 MHz, 52 MHz, and 59 MHzcould be used. This would stimulate several different hyperfinefrequencies of hydrogen, and it would stimulate them essentially all atthe same time. This would cause stimulation of the fine structurefrequencies, which in turn would stimulate the electronic frequencies inthe hydrogen atom.

Still further, depending on available equipment and/or design, and/orprocessing constraints, some delivery mode variations can also be used.For example, one of the lower frequencies could be a carrier frequencyfor the upper frequencies. A continuous frequency of 52 MHz could bevaried in amplitude at a rate of 2.7 MHz. Or, a 59 MHz frequency couldbe pulsed at a rate of 4.2 MHz. There are various ways in which thesefrequencies can be combined and/or delivered, including different waveshapes durations, intensity shapes, duty cycles, etc. Depending on whichof the hyperfine splitting frequencies are stimulated, the evolution of,for example, various and specific transients may be precisely tailoredand controlled, allowing precise control over reaction systems using thefine and/or hyperfine splitting frequencies.

Accordingly, a major point of the present invention is once it isunderstood the energy transfers when frequencies match, then determiningwhich frequencies are available for matching is the next step. Thisinvention discloses precisely how to achieve that goal. Interactionsbetween equipment limitations, processing constraints, etc., can decidewhich frequencies are best suited for a particular purpose. Thus, bothdirect resonance and indirect resonance are suitable approaches for theuse of spectral energy catalysts.

Electric Fields

Another means for modifying the spectral pattern of substances, is toexpose a substance to an electric field. Specifically, in the presenceof an electric field, spectral frequency lines of atoms and moleculescan be split, shifted, broadened, or changed in intensity. The effect ofan electric field on spectral lines is known as the “Stark Effect”, inhonor of its' discoverer, J. Stark. In 1913, Stark discovered that theBalmer series of hydrogen (i.e., curve II of FIGS. 9 a and 9 b) wassplit into several different components, while Stark was using a highelectric field in the presence of a hydrogen flame. In the interveningyears, Stark's original observation has evolved into a separate branchof spectroscopy, namely the study of the structure of atoms andmolecules by measuring the changes in their respective spectral linescaused by an electric field.

The electric field effects have some similarities to fine and hyperfinesplitting frequencies. Specifically, as previously discussed herein,fine structure and hyperfine structure frequencies, along with their lowfrequency splitting or coupling constants, were caused by interactionsinside the atom or molecule, between the electric field of the electronand the magnetic field of the electron or nucleus. Electric fieldeffects are similar, except that instead of the electric field comingfrom inside the atom, the electric field is applied from outside theatom. The Stark effect is primarily the interaction of an externalelectric field, from outside the atom or molecule, with the electric andmagnetic fields already established within the atom or molecule.

When examining electric field effects on atoms, molecules, ions and/orcomponents thereof, the nature of the electric field should also beconsidered (e.g., such as whether the electric field is static ordynamic). A static electric field may be produced by a direct current. Adynamic electric field is time varying, and may be produced by analternating current. If the electric field is from an alternatingcurrent, then the frequency of the alternating current compared to thefrequencies of the, for instance atom or molecule, should also beconsidered.

In atoms, an external electric field disturbs the charge distribution ofthe atom's electrons. This disturbance of the electron's own electricfield induces a dipole moment in it (i.e., slightly lopsided chargedistribution). This lopsided electron dipole moment then interacts withthe external electric field. In other words, the external electric fieldfirst induces a dipole moment in the electron field, and then interactswith the dipole. The end result is that the atomic frequencies becomesplit into several different frequencies. The amount the frequencies aresplit apart depends on the strength of the electric field. In otherwords, the stronger the electric field, the farther apart the splitting.

If the splitting varies directly with the electric field strength, thenit is called first order splitting (i.e., Δv=AF where Δv is thesplitting frequency, A is a constant and F is the electric fieldstrength. When the splitting varies with the square of the fieldstrength, it is called a second order or quadriatic effect (i.e.,Δv=BF²). One or both effects may be seen in various forms of matter. Forexample, the hydrogen atom exhibits first order Stark effects at lowelectric field strengths, and second order effects at high fieldstrengths. Other electric field effects which vary with the cube or thefourth power, etc., of the electric field strength are less studied, butproduce splitting frequencies nonetheless. A second order electric fieldeffect for potassium is shown in FIGS. 55 and 56. FIG. 55 shows theschematic dependence of the 4s and 5p energy levels on the electricfield. FIG. 56 shows a plot of the deviation from zero-field positionsof the 5p² P1/2.3/2←4s² S1/2 transition wavenumbers against the squareof the electric field. Note that the frequency splitting or separationof the frequencies (i.e., deviation from zero-field wavenumber) varieswith the square of the electric field strength (v/cm)².

The mechanism for the Stark effect in molecules is simpler than theeffect is in atoms. Most molecules already have an electric dipolemoment (i.e., a slightly uneven charge distribution). The externalelectric field simply interacts with the electric dipole moment alreadyinside the molecule. The type of interaction, a first or a second orderStark effect, is different for differently shaped molecules. Forexample, most symmetric top molecules have first-order Stark effects.Asymmetric rotors typically have second-order Stark effects. Thus, inmolecules, as in atoms, the splitting or separation of the frequenciesdue to the external electric field, is proportional either to theelectric field strength itself, or to the square of the electric fieldstrength.

An example of this is shown in FIG. 57, which diagrams how frequencycomponents of the J=0→1 rotational transition for the molecule CH₃Clrespond to an external electric field. When the electric field is verysmall (e.g., less than 10 E² esu²/cm²), the primary effect is shiftingof the three rotational frequencies to higher frequencies. As the fieldstrength is increased (e.g., between 10 and 20 E² esu²/cm²), the threerotational frequencies split into five different frequencies. Withcontinued increases in the electric field strength, the now fivefrequencies continue to shift to even higher frequencies. Some of theintervals or differences between the five frequencies remain the sameregardless of the electric field strength, while other intervals becomeprogressively larger and higher. Thus, a heterodyned frequency mightstimulate splitting frequencies at one electric field strength, but notat another.

Another molecular example is shown in FIG. 58. (This is a diagram of theStark Effect in the same OCS molecule shown in FIG. 44 for the J=1→2).The J=1→2 rotational transition frequency is shown centered at zero onthe horizontal frequency axis in FIG. 58. That frequency centered atzero is a single frequency when there is no external electric field.When an electric field is added, however, the single rotationalfrequency splits into two. The stronger the electric field is, the widerthe splitting is between the two frequencies. One of the new frequenciesshifts up higher and higher, while the other frequency shifts lower andlower. Because the difference between the two frequencies changes whenthe electric field strength changes, a heterodyned splitting frequencymight stimulate the rotational level at one electric field strength, butnot at another. An electric field can effect the spectral frequencies ofreaction participants, and thus impact the spectral chemistry of areaction.

Broadening and shifting of spectral lines also occurs with theintermolecular Stark effect. The intermolecular Stark effect is producedwhen the electric field from surrounding atoms, ions, or molecules,affects the spectral emissions of the species under study. In otherwords, the external electric field comes from other atoms and moleculesrather than from a DC or AC current. The other atoms and molecules arein constant motion, and thus their electric fields are inhomogeneous inspace and time. Instead of a frequency being split into several easilyseen narrow frequencies, the original frequency simply becomes muchwider, encompassing most, if not all, of what would have been the splitfrequencies, (i.e., it is broadened). Solvents, support materials,poisons, promoters, etc., are composed of atoms and molecules andcomponents thereof. It is now understood that many of their effects arethe result of the intermolecular Stark effect.

The above examples demonstrate how an electric field splits, shifts, andbroadens spectral frequencies for matter. However, intensities of thelines can also be affected. Some of these variations in intensity areshown in FIGS. 59 a and 59 b. FIG. 59 a shows patterns of Starkcomponents for transitions in the rotation of an asymmetric top moleculefor the J=4→5 transition; whereas FIG. 59 b corresponds to J=4→4. Theintensity variations depend on rotational transitions, molecularstructure, etc., and the electric field strength.

An interesting Stark effect is shown in a structure such as a molecule,which has hyperfine (rotational) frequencies. The general rule for thecreation of hyperfine frequencies is that the hyperfine frequenciesresult from an interaction between electrons and the nucleus. Thisinteraction can be affected by an external electric field. If theapplied external electric field is weak, then the Stark energy is muchless than the energy of the hyperfine energy (i.e., rotational energy).The hyperfine lines are split into various new lines, and the separation(i.e., splitting) between the lines is very small (i.e., at radiofrequencies and extra low frequencies).

If the external electric field is very strong, then the Stark energy ismuch larger than the hyperfine energy, and the molecule is tossed,sometimes violently, back and forth by the electric field. In this case,the hyperfine structure is radically changed. It is almost as thoughthere no longer is any hyperfine structure. The Stark splitting issubstantially the same as that which would have been observed if therewere no hyperfine frequencies, and the hyperfine frequencies simply actas a small perturbation to the Stark splitting frequencies.

If the external electric field is intermediate in strength, then theStark and hyperfine energies are substantially equivalent. In this case,the calculations become very complex. Generally, the Stark splitting isclose to the same frequencies as the hyperfine splitting, but therelative intensities of the various components can vary rapidly withslight changes in the strength of the external electric field. Thus, atone electric field strength one splitting frequency may predominate,while at an electric field strength just 1% higher, a totally differentStark frequency could predominate in intensity.

All of the preceding discussion on the Stark effect has concentrated onthe effects due to a static electric field, such as one would find witha direct current. The Stark effects of a dynamic, or time-varyingelectric field produced by an alternating current, are quite interestingand can be quite different. Just which of those affects appear, dependson the frequency of the electric field (i.e., alternating current)compared to the frequency of the matter in question. If the electricfield is varying very slowly, such as with 60 Hz wall outletelectricity, then the normal or static type of electric field effectoccurs. As the electric field varies from zero to maximum fieldstrength, the matter frequencies vary from their unsplit frequencies totheir maximally split frequencies at the rate of the changing electricfield. Thus, the electric field frequency modulates the frequency of thesplitting phenomena.

However, as the electrical frequency increases, the first frequencymeasurement it will begin to overtake is the line width (see FIG. 16 fora diagram of line width). The line width of a curve is its' distanceacross, and the measurement is actually a very tiny heterodyne frequencymeasurement from one side of the curve to the other side. Line widthfrequencies are typically around 100 KHz at room temperature. Inpractical terms, line width represents a relaxation time for molecules,where the relaxation time is the time required for any transientphenomena to disappear. So, if the electrical frequency is significantlysmaller than the line width frequency, the molecule has plenty of timeto adjust to the slowly changing electric field, and the normal orstatic-type Stark effects occur.

If the electrical frequency is slightly less than the line widthfrequency, the molecule changes its' frequencies substantially in rhythmwith the frequency of the electric field (i.e., it entrains to thefrequency of the electric field). This is shown in FIG. 60 which showsthe Stark effect for OCS on the J=1→2 transition with applied electricfields at various frequencies. The letter “a” corresponds to the Starkeffect with a static DC electric field; “b” corresponds to a broadeningand blurring of the Stark frequencies with a 1 KHz electric field; and“c” corresponds to a normal Stark effect with an electric field of 1,200KHz. As the electric field frequency approaches the KHz line widthrange, the Stark curves vary their frequencies with the electric fieldfrequency and become broadened and somewhat blurred. When the electricfield frequency moves up and beyond the line width range to about 1,200KHz, the normal Stark type curves again become crisp anddistinguishable. In many respects, the molecule cannot keep up with therapid electrical field variation and simply averages the Stark effect.In all three cases, the cyclic splitting of the Stark frequencies ismodulated with the electrical field frequency, or its' first harmonic(i.e., 2× the electrical field frequency).

The next frequency measurement that an ever-increasing electricalfrequency will overtake in a molecule is the transitional frequencybetween two rotational levels (i.e., hyperfine frequencies). As theelectric field frequency approaches a transitional frequency between twolevels, the radiation of the transitional frequency in the molecule willinduce transitions back and forth between the levels. The moleculeoscillates back and forth between both levels, at the frequency of theelectric field. When the electric field and transition level frequenciesare substantially the same (i.e., in resonance), the molecule will beoscillating back and forth in both levels, and the spectral lines forboth levels will appear simultaneously and at approximately the sameintensity. Normally, only one frequency level is seen at a time, but aresonant electric field causes the molecule to be at both levels atessentially the same time, and so both transitional frequencies appearin its' spectrum.

Moreover, for sufficiently large electric fields (e.g., those used togenerate plasmas) additional transition level frequencies can occur atregular spacings substantially equal to the electric field frequency.Also, splitting of the transition level frequencies can occur, atfrequencies of the electric field frequency divided by odd numbers(e.g., electric field frequency “f_(E)” divided by 3, or 5, or 7, i.e.,f_(E)/3 or f_(E)/5, etc.).

All the varied effects of electric fields cause new frequencies, newsplitting frequencies and new energy level states.

Further, when the electric field frequency equals a transition levelfrequency of for instance, an atom or molecule, a second component withan opposite frequency charge and equal intensity can develop. This isnegative Stark effect, with the two components of equal and oppositefrequency charges destructively canceling each other. In spectralchemistry terms this amounts to a negative catalyst or poison in thereaction system, if the transition thus targeted was important to thereaction pathway. Thus, electric fields cause the Stark effect, which isthe splitting, shifting, broadening, or changing intensity and changingtransitional states of spectral frequencies for matter, (e.g., atoms andmolecules). As with many of the other mechanisms that have beendiscussed herein, changes in the spectral frequencies of reactionsystems can affect the reaction rate and/or reaction pathway. Forexample, consider a reaction system like the following:

where A&B are reactants, C is a physical catalyst, I stands for theintermediates, and D&F are the products.

Assume arguendo that the reaction normally progresses at only a moderaterate, by virtue of the fact that the physical catalyst produces severalfrequencies that are merely close to harmonics of the intermediates.Further assume that when an electric field is added, the catalystfrequencies are shifted so that several of the catalyst frequencies arenow exact or substantially exact harmonics of the intermediates. Thiswill result in, for example, the reaction being catalyzed at a fasterrate. Thus, the Stark effect can be used to obtain a more efficientenergy transfer through the matching of frequencies (i.e., whenfrequencies match, energies transfer).

If a reaction normally progresses at only a moderate rate, many“solutions” have included subjecting the reaction system to extremelyhigh pressures. The high pressures result in a broadening of thespectral patterns, which improves the transfer of energy through amatching of resonant frequencies. By understanding the underlyingcatalyst mechanisms of action, high-pressure systems could be replacedwith, for example, a simple electric field which produces broadening.Not only would this be less costly to an industrial manufacturer, itcould be much safer for manufacturing due to the removal of, forexample, high-pressure equipment.

Some reactants when mixed together do not react very quickly at all, butwhen an electric field is added they react rather rapidly. The prior artmay refer to such a reaction as being catalyzed by an electric field andthe equations would look like this:

where E is the electric field. In this case, rather than applying acatalyst “C” (as discussed previously) to obtain the products “D+F”, anelectric field “E” can be applied. In this instance, the electric fieldworks by changing the spectral frequencies (or spectral pattern) of oneor more components in the reaction system so that the frequencies comeinto resonance, and the reaction can proceed along a desired reactionpathway (i.e., when frequencies match, energy is transferred).Understood in this way, the electric field becomes just another tool tochange spectral frequencies of atoms and molecules, and thereby affectreaction rates in spectral chemistry.

Reaction pathways are also important. In the absence of an electricalfield, a reaction pathway will progress to one set of products:

However, if an electrical field is added, at some particular strength ofthe field, the spectral frequencies may change so much, that a differentintermediate is energized and the reaction proceeds down a differentreaction pathway:

This is similar to the concept discussed earlier herein, regarding theformation of different products depending on temperature. The changes intemperature caused changes in spectral frequencies, and hence differentreaction pathways were favored at different temperatures. Likewise,electric fields cause changes in spectral frequencies, and hencedifferent reactions pathways are favored by different electric fields.By tailoring an electric field to a particular reaction system, one cancontrol not only the rate of the reaction but also the reaction productsproduced.

The ability to tailor reactions, with or without a physical catalyst, byvarying the strength of an electric field should be useful in manymanufacturing situations. For example, it might be more cost effectiveto build only one physical set-up for a reaction system and to use oneor more electric fields to change the reaction dynamics and products,depending on which product is desired. This would save the expense ofhaving a separate physical set-up for production of each group ofproducts.

Besides varying the strength of an electric field, the frequency of anelectric field can also be varied. Assuming that a reaction will proceedat a much faster rate if a particular strength static electric field(i.e., direct current) is added as in the following:

But further assume, that because of reactor design and location, it ismuch easier to deliver a time-varying electric field with alternatingcurrent. A very low frequency field, such as with a 60 Hz wall outlet,can produce the normal or static-type Stark effect. Thus, the reactorcould be adapted to the 60 Hz electric field and enjoy the same increasein reaction rate that would occur with the static electric field.

If a certain physical catalyst produces spectral frequencies that areclose to intermediate frequencies, but are not exact, it is possiblethat the activity of the physical catalyst in the past may have beenimproved by using higher temperatures. As disclosed earlier herein, thehigher temperatures actually broadened the physical catalyst's spectralpattern to cause the frequency of the physical catalyst to be at least apartial match for at least one of the intermediates. What is significanthere is that high temperature boilers can be minimized, or eliminatedaltogether, and in their stead a moderate frequency electric fieldwhich, for example, broadened the spectral frequencies, could be used.For example, a frequency of around 100 Khz, equivalent to the typicalline width frequencies at room temperature, could broaden substantiallyall of the spectral curves and cause the physical catalyst's spectralcurves to match those of, for example, required intermediates. Thus, theelectric field could cause the matter to behave as though thetemperature had been raised, even though it had not been. (Similarly,any spectral manipulation, (e.g., electric fields acoustics,heterodynes, etc., that cause changes in the spectral line width, maycause a material to behave as though its temperature had been changed).

The cyclic splitting of the Stark frequencies can be modulated with theelectrical field frequency or its' first harmonic (i.e., first-orderStark effects are modulated with the electrical field frequency, whilesecond-order Stark effects are modulated by two times the electricalfield, frequency). Assume that a metallic platinum catalyst is used in ahydrogen reaction and it is desired to stimulate the 2.7 MHz hyperfinefrequency of the hydrogen atoms. Earlier herein it was disclosed thatelectromagnetic radiation could be used to deliver the 2.7 MHzfrequency. However, use of an alternating electric field at 2.7 MHzcould be used instead. Since platinum is a metal and conductselectricity well, the platinum can be considered to be a part of thealternating current circuit. The platinum will exhibit a Stark effect,with all the frequencies splitting at a rate of 2.7 MHz. At sufficientlystrong electric fields, additional transition frequencies or “sidebands”will occur at regular spacings equal to the electric field frequency.There will be dozens of split frequencies in the platinum atoms that areheterodynes of 2.7 MHz. This massive heterodyned output may stimulatethe hydrogen hyperfine frequency of 2.7 MHz and direct the reaction.

Another way to achieve this reaction, of course, would be to leave theplatinum out of the reaction altogether. The 2.7 MHz field will have aresonant Stark effect on the hydrogen, separate and independent of theplatinum catalyst. Copper is not normally catalytic for hydrogen, butcopper could be used to construct a reaction vessel like a Starkwaveguide to energize the hydrogen. A Stark waveguide is used to performStark spectroscopy. It is shown as FIGS. 61 a and 61 b. Specifically,FIG. 61 a shows the construction of the Stark waveguide, whereas FIG. 61b shows the distribution of fields in the Stark waveguide. Theelectrical field is delivered through the conducting plate. A reactionvessel could be made for the flow-through of gases and use an economicalmetal such as copper for the conducting plate. When the 2.7 MHzalternating current is delivered through the electrical connection tothe copper conductor plate, the copper spectral frequencies, none ofwhich are particularly resonant with hydrogen, will exhibit a Starkeffect with normal-type splitting. The Stark frequencies will be splitat a rate of 2.7 MHz. At a sufficiently strong electric field strength,additional sidebands will appear in the copper, with regular spacings(i.e., heterodynes) of 2.7 MHz even though none of the actual copperfrequencies matches the hydrogen frequencies, the Stark splitting orheterodynes will match the hydrogen frequency. Dozens of the coppersplit frequencies may resonate indirectly with the hydrogen hyperfinefrequency and direct the reaction (i.e., when frequencies match,energies transfer).

With sophisticated equipment and a good understanding of a particularsystem, Stark resonance can be used with a transition level frequency.For example, assume that to achieve a particular reaction pathway, amolecule needs to be stimulated with a transition level frequency of 500MHz. By delivering the 500 MHz electrical field to the molecule, thisresonant electrical field may cause the molecule to oscillate back andforth between the two levels at the rate of 500 MHz. This electricallycreates the conditions for light amplification (i.e., laser viastimulation of multiple upper energy levels) and any addedelectromagnetic radiation at this frequency will be amplified by themolecule. In this manner, an electrical field may substitute for thelaser effects of physical catalysts.

In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanisms ofchemical reactions, electric fields can be used as yet another tool tocatalyze and modify those chemical reactions and/or reaction pathways bymodifying the spectral characteristics, for example, at least oneparticipant and/or one or more components in the reaction system. Thus,another tool for mimicking catalyst mechanisms of reactions can beutilized.

Magnetic Fields

In spectral terms, magnetic fields behave similar to electric fields intheir effect. Specifically, the spectral frequency lines, for instanceof atoms and molecules, can be split and shifted by a magnetic field. Inthis case, the external magnetic field from outside the atom ormolecule, interacts with the electric and magnetic fields already insidethe atom or molecule.

This action of an external magnetic field on spectral lines is calledthe “Zeeman Effect”, in honor of its' discoverer, Dutch physicist PieterZeeman. In 1896, Zeeman discovered that the yellow flame spectroscopy“D” lines of sodium were broadened when the flame was held betweenstrong magnetic poles. It was later discovered that the apparentbroadening of the sodium spectral lines was actually due to theirsplitting and shifting. Zeeman's original observation has evolved into aseparate branch of spectroscopy, relating to the study of atoms andmolecules by measuring the changes in their spectral lines caused by amagnetic field. This in turn has evolved into the nuclear magneticresonance spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging used in medicine,as well as the laser magnetic resonance and electron spin resonancespectroscopy used in physics and chemistry.

The Zeeman effect for the famous “D” lines of sodium is shown in FIGS.62 a and 62 b. FIG. 62 a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium “D” lines;whereas FIG. 62 b shows the energy level diagram for the transitions inthe Zeeman effect for the sodium “D” lines. The “D” lines aretraditionally said to result from transition between the 3p²P and 3s²Selectron orbitals. As is shown, each of the single spectral frequenciesis split into two or more slightly different frequencies, which centeraround the original unsplit frequency.

In the Zeeman effect, the amount that the spectral frequencies are splitapart depends on the strength of the applied magnetic field. FIG. 63shows Zeeman splitting effects for the oxygen atom as a function ofmagnetic field. When there is no magnetic field, there are two singlefrequencies at zero and 4.8. When the magnetic field is at low strength(e.g., 0.2 Tesla) there is just slight splitting and shifting of theoriginal two frequencies. However, as the magnetic field is increased,the frequencies are split and shifted farther and farther apart.

The degree of splitting and shifting in the Zeeman effect, depending onmagnetic field strength, is shown in FIG. 64 for the ³P state ofsilicon.

As with the Stark effect generated from an external electric field, theZeeman effect, generated from an external magnetic field, is slightlydifferent depending on whether an atom or molecule is subjected to themagnetic field. The Zeeman effect on atoms can be divided into threedifferent magnetic field strengths: weak; moderate; and strong. If themagnetic field strength is weak, the amount that the spectralfrequencies will be shifted and split apart will be very small. Theshifting away from the original spectral frequency will still stimulatethe shifted frequencies. This is because they will be so close to theoriginal spectral frequency that they will still be well within itsresonance curve. As for the splitting, it is so small, that it is evenless than the hyperfine splitting that normally occurs. This means thatin a weak magnetic field, there will be only very slight splitting ofspectral frequencies, translating into very low splitting frequencies inthe lower regions of the radio spectrum and down into the very lowfrequency region. For example, the Zeeman splitting frequency for thehydrogen atom, which is caused by the earth's magnetic field, is around30 KHz. Larger atoms have even lower frequencies in the lower kilohertzand even hertz regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Without a magnetic field, an atom can be stimulated by using directresonance with a spectral frequency or by using its fine or hyperfinesplitting frequencies in the infrared through microwave, or microwavethrough radio regions, respectively. By merely adding a very weakmagnetic field, the atom can be stimulated with an even lower radio orvery low frequency matching the Zeeman splitting frequency. Thus, bysimply using a weak magnetic field, a spectral catalyst range can beextended even lower into the radio frequency range. The weak magneticfield from the Earth causes Zeeman splitting in atoms in the hertz andkilohertz ranges. This means that all atoms, including those inbiological organisms, are sensitive to hertz and kilohertz EMfrequencies, by virtue of being subjected to the Earth's magnetic field.

At the other end of magnetic field strength, is the very strong magneticfield. In this case, the splitting apart and shifting of the spectralfrequencies will be very wide. With this wide shifting of frequencies,the difference between the split frequencies will be much larger thanthe difference between the hyperfine splitting frequencies. Thistranslates to Zeeman effect splitting frequencies at higher frequenciesthan the hyperfine splitting frequencies. This splitting occurssomewhere around the microwave region. Although the addition of a strongmagnetic field does not extend the reach in the electromagnetic spectrumat one extreme or the other, as a weak magnetic field does, it stilldoes provide an option of several more potential spectral catalystfrequencies that can be used in the microwave region.

The moderate magnetic field strength case is more complicated. Theshifting and splitting caused by the Zeeman effect from a moderatemagnetic field will be approximately equal to the hyperfine splitting.Although not widely discussed in the prior art, it is possible to applya moderate magnetic field to an atom, to produce Zeeman splitting whichis substantially equivalent to its' hyperfine splitting. This presentsinteresting possibilities. Methods for guiding atoms in chemicalreactions were disclosed earlier herein by stimulating atoms withhyperfine splitting frequencies. The Zeeman effect provides a way toachieve similar effects without introducing any spectral frequencies atall. For example, by introducing a moderate magnetic field, resonancemay be set-up within the atom itself, that stimulates and/or energizesand/or stabilizes the atom.

The moderate magnetic field causes low frequency Zeeman splitting, thatmatches and hence energizes the low frequency hyperfine splittingfrequency in the atom. However, the low hyperfine splitting frequenciesactually correspond to the heterodyned difference between twovibrational or fine structure frequencies. When the hyperfine splittingfrequency is stimulated, the two electronic frequencies will eventuallybe stimulated. This in turn causes the atom to be, for example,stimulated. Thus, the Zeeman effect permits a spectral energy catalyststimulation of an atom by exposing that atom to a precise strength of amagnetic field, and the use of spectral EM frequencies is not required(i.e., so long as frequencies match, energies will transfer). Thepossibilities are quite interesting because an inert reaction system maysuddenly spring to life upon the application of the proper moderatestrength magnetic field.

There is also a difference between the “normal” Zeeman effect and the“anomalous” Zeeman effect. With the “normal” Zeeman effect, a spectralfrequency is split by a magnetic field into three frequencies, withexpected even spacing between them (see FIG. 65 a which shows the“normal” Zeeman effects and FIG. 65 b which shows the “anomalous” Zeemaneffects). One of the new split frequencies is above the originalfrequency, and the other new split frequency is below the originalfrequency. Both new frequencies are split the same distance away fromthe original frequency. Thus, the difference between the upper andoriginal and the lower and original frequencies is about the same. Thismeans that in terms of heterodyne differences, there are at most, twonew heterodyned differences with the normal Zeeman effect. The firstheterodyne or splitting difference is the difference between one of thenew split frequencies and the original frequency. The other splittingdifference is between the upper and lower new split frequencies. It is,of course, twice the frequency difference between either of the upper orlower frequencies and the original frequency.

In many instances the Zeeman splitting produced by a magnetic fieldresults in more than three frequencies, or in splitting that is spaceddifferently than expected. This is called the “anomalous” Zeeman effect(see FIGS. 65 and 66; wherein FIG. 66 shows an anomalous Zeeman effectfor zinc 3p→3s.

If there are still just three frequencies, and the Zeeman effect isanomalous because the spacing is different than expected, the situationis similar to the normal effect. However, there are at most, two newsplitting frequencies that can be used. If, however, the effect isanomalous because more than three frequencies are produced, then therewill be a much more richly varied situation. Assume an easy case wherethere are four Zeeman splitting frequencies (see FIG. 67 a and FIG. 67b). FIG. 67 a shows four Zeeman splitting frequencies and FIG. 67 bshows four new heterodyned differences.

In this example of anomalous Zeeman splitting, there are a total of fourfrequencies, where once existed only one frequency. For simplicity'ssake, the new Zeeman frequencies will be labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4.Frequencies 3 and 4 are also split apart by the same difference “w”.Thus, “w” is a heterodyned splitting frequency. Frequencies 2 and 3 arealso split apart by a different amount “x”. So far there are twoheterodyned splitting frequencies, as in the normal Zeeman effect.

However, frequencies 1 and 3 are split apart by a third amount “y”,where “y” is the sum of “w” and “x”. And, frequencies 2 and 4 are alsosplit apart by the same third amount “y”. Finally, frequencies 1 and 4are split even farther apart by an amount “z”. Once again, “z” is asummation amount from adding “w+x+w”. Thus, the result is fourheterodyned frequencies: w, x, y, and z in the anomalous Zeeman effect.

If there were six frequencies present from the anomalous Zeeman effect,there would be even more heterodyned differences. Thus, the anomalousZeeman effect results in far greater flexibility in the choice offrequencies when compared to the normal Zeeman effect. In the normalZeeman effect the original frequency is split into three evenly spacedfrequencies, with a total of just two heterodyned frequencies. In theanomalous Zeeman effect the original frequency is split into four ormore unevenly spaced frequencies, with at least four or more heterodynedfrequencies.

Now for a discussion of the Zeeman effect in molecules. Molecules comein three basic varieties: ferromagnetic; paramagnetic; and diamagnetic.Ferromagnetic molecules are typical magnets. The materials typicallyhold a strong magnetic field and are composed of magnetic elements suchas iron, cobalt, and nickel.

Paramagnetic molecules hold only a weak magnetic field. If aparamagnetic material is put into an external magnetic field, themagnetic moment of the molecules of the material are lined up in thesame direction as the external magnetic field. Now, the magnetic momentof the molecules is the direction in which the molecules own magneticfield is weighted. Specifically, the magnetic moment of a molecule willtip to whichever side of the molecule is more heavily weighted in termsof its own magnetic field. Thus, paramagnetic molecules will typicallytip in the same direction as an externally applied magnetic field.Because paramagnetic materials line up with an external magnetic field,they are also weakly attracted to sources of magnetic fields.

Common paramagnetic elements include oxygen, aluminum, sodium,magnesium, calcium and potassium. Stable molecules such as oxygen (O₂)and nitric oxide (NO) are also paramagnetic. Molecular oxygen makes upapproximately 20% of our planet's atmosphere. Both molecules playimportant roles in biologic organisms. In addition, unstable molecules,more commonly known as free radicals, chemical reaction intermediates orplasmas, are also paramagnetic. Paramagnetic ions include hydrogen,manganese, chromium, iron, cobalt, and nickel. Many paramagneticsubstances occur in biological organisms. For instance the blood flowingin our veins is an ionic solution containing red blood cells. The redblood cells contain hemoglobin, which in turn contains ionized iron. Thehemoglobin, and hence the red blood cells, are paramagnetic. Inaddition, hydrogen ions can be found in a multitude of organic compoundsand reactions. For instance, the hydrochloric acid in a stomach containshydrogen ions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy system of nearlyall biological organisms, requires hydrogen and manganese ions tofunction properly. Thus, the very existence of life itself depends onparamagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic molecules, on the other hand, are repelled by a magneticfield, and line up what little magnetic moments they have away from thedirection of an external magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances do nottypically hold a magnetic field. Examples of diamagnetic elementsinclude hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,chlorine, copper, zinc, silver, gold, lead, and mercury. Diamagneticmolecules include water, most gases, organic compounds, and salts suchas sodium chloride. Salts are really just crystals of diamagnetic ions.Diamagnetic ions include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium,fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, ammonium, and sulphate. Ioniccrystals usually dissolve easily in water, and as such the ionic watersolution is also diamagnetic. Biologic organisms are filled withdiamagnetic materials, because they are carbon-based life forms. Inaddition, the blood flowing in our veins is an ionic solution containingblood cells. The ionic solution (i.e., blood plasma) is made of watermolecules, sodium ions, potassium ions, chlorine ions, and organicprotein compounds. Hence, our blood is a diamagnetic solution carryingparamagnetic blood cells.

With regard to the Zeeman effect, first consider the case ofparamagnetic molecules. As with atoms, the effects can be categorized onthe basis of magnetic field strength. If the external magnetic fieldapplied to a paramagnetic molecule is weak, the Zeeman effect willproduce splitting into equally spaced levels. In most cases, the amountof splitting will be directly proportional to the strength of themagnetic field, a “first-order” effect. A general rule of thumb is thata field of one (1) oersted (i.e., slightly larger than the earth'smagnetic field) will produce Zeeman splittings of approximately 1.4 MHzin paramagnetic molecules. Weaker magnetic fields will produce narrowersplittings, at lower frequencies. Stronger magnetic fields will producewider splittings, at higher frequencies. In these first order Zeemaneffects, there is usually only splitting, with no shifting of theoriginal or center frequency, as was present with Zeeman effects onatoms.

In many paramagnetic molecules there are also second-order effects wherethe Zeeman splitting is proportional to the square of the magnetic fieldstrength. In these cases, the splitting is much smaller and of muchlower frequencies. In addition to splitting, the original or centerfrequencies shift as they do in atoms, proportional to the magneticfield strength.

Sometimes the direction of the magnetic field in relation to theorientation of the molecule makes a difference. For instance, πfrequencies are associated with a magnetic field parallel to an excitingelectromagnetic field, while a frequencies are found when it isperpendicular. Both π and

frequencies are present with a circularly polarized electromagneticfield. Typical Zeeman splitting patterns for a paramagnetic molecule intwo different transitions are shown in FIGS. 68 a and 68 b. The πfrequencies are seen when ΔM=0, and are above the long horizontal line.The

frequencies are seen when ΔM=±1, and are below the long horizontal line.If a paramagnetic molecule was placed in a weak magnetic field,circularly polarized light would excite both sets of frequencies in themolecule. Thus, it is possible to control which set of frequencies areexcited in a molecule by controlling its orientation with respect to themagnetic field.

When the magnetic field strength is intermediate, the interactionbetween the paramagnetic molecule's magnetic moments and the externallyapplied magnetic field produces Zeeman effects equivalent to otherfrequencies and energies in the molecule. For instance, the Zeemanspitting may be near a rotational frequency and disturb the end-over-endrotational motion of the molecule. The Zeeman splitting and energy maybe particular or large enough to uncouple the molecule's spin from itsmolecular axis.

If the magnetic field is very strong, the nuclear magnetic moment spinwill uncouple from the molecular angular momentum. In this case, theZeeman effects overwhelm the hyperfine structure, and are of much higherenergies at much higher frequencies. In spectra of molecules exposed tostrong magnetic fields, hyperfine splitting appears as a smallperturbation of the Zeeman splitting.

Next, consider Zeeman effects in so called “ordinary molecules” ordiamagnetic molecules. Most molecules are of the diamagnetic variety,hence the designation “ordinary”. This includes, of course, most organicmolecules found in biologic organisms. Diamagnetic molecules haverotational magnetic moments from rotation of the positively chargednucleus, and this magnetic moment of the nucleus is only about 1/1000 ofthat from the paramagnetic molecules. This means that the energy fromZeeman splitting in diamagnetic molecules is much smaller than theenergy from Zeeman splitting in paramagnetic molecules. The equation forthe Zeeman energy in diamagnetic molecules is:

Hz=−(g _(j) J=g ₁ I)·βH _(o)

where J is the molecular rotational angular momentum, I is thenuclear-spin angular momentum, g_(j) is the rotational g factor, and g₁is the nuclear-spin g factor. This Zeeman energy is much less, and ofmuch lower frequency, than the paramagnetic Zeeman energy. In terms offrequency, it falls in the hertz and kilohertz regions of theelectromagnetic spectrum.

Finally, consider the implications of Zeeman splitting for catalyst andchemical reactions and for spectral chemistry. A weak magnetic fieldwill produce hertz and kilohertz Zeeman splitting in atoms and secondorder effects in paramagnetic molecules. Virtually any kind of magneticfield will produce hertz and kilohertz Zeeman splitting in diamagneticmolecules. All these atoms and molecules will then become sensitive toradio and very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic waves. The atoms andmolecules will absorb the radio or VLF energy and become stimulated to agreater or lesser degree. This could be used to add spectral energy to,for instance, a particular molecule or intermediate in a chemicalreaction system. For instance, for hydrogen and oxygen gases turninginto water over a platinum catalyst, the hydrogen atom radical isimportant for maintaining the reaction. In the earth's weak magneticfield, Zeeman splitting for hydrogen is around 30 KHz. Thus, thehydrogen atoms in the reaction system, could be energized by applying tothem a Zeeman splitting frequency for hydrogen (e.g., 30 KHz).Energizing the hydrogen atoms in the reaction system will duplicate themechanisms of action of platinum, and catalyze the reaction. If thereaction was moved into outer space, away from the earth's weak magneticfield, hydrogen would no longer have a 30 KHz Zeeman splittingfrequency, and the 30 KHz would no longer as effectively catalyze thereaction.

The vast majority of materials on this planet, by virtue of existingwithin the earth's weak magnetic field, will exhibit Zeeman splitting inthe hertz and kilohertz regions. This applies to biologics and organicsas well as inorganic or inanimate materials. Humans are composed of awide variety of atoms, diamagnetic molecules, and second order effectparamagnetic molecules. These atoms and molecules all exist in theearth's weak magnetic field. These atoms and molecules in humans allhave Zeeman splitting in the hertz and kilohertz regions, because theyare in the earth's magnetic field. Biochemical and biocatalytic processin humans are thus sensitive to hertz and kilohertz electromagneticradiation, by virtue of the fact that they are in the earth's weakmagnetic field. As long as humans continue to exist on this planet, theywill be subject to spectral energy catalyst effects from hertz andkilohertz EM waves because of the Zeeman effect from the planet'smagnetic field. This has significant implications for low frequencycommunications, as well as chemical and biochemical reactions,diagnostics, and treatment of diseases.

A strong magnetic field will produce splitting greater than thehyperfine frequencies, in the microwave and infrared regions of the EMspectrum in atoms and paramagnetic molecules. In the hydrogen/oxygenreaction, a strong field could be added to the reaction system andtransmit MHz and/or GHz frequencies into the reaction to energize thehydroxy radical and hydrogen reaction intermediates. If physicalplatinum was used to catalyze the reaction, the application of aparticular magnetic field strength could result in both the platinum andthe reaction intermediate spectra having frequencies that were split andshifted in such a way that even more frequencies matched than withoutthe magnetic field. In this way, Zeeman splitting can be used to improvethe effectiveness of a physical catalyst, by copying its mechanism ofaction (i.e., more frequencies could be caused to match and thus moreenergy could transfer).

A moderate magnetic field will produce Zeeman splitting in atoms andparamagnetic molecules at frequencies on par with the hyperfine androtational splitting frequencies. This means that a reaction system canbe energized without even adding electromagnetic energy. Similarly, byplacing the reaction system in a moderate magnetic field that producesZeeman splitting equal to the hyperfine or rotational splitting,increased reaction would occur. For instance, by using a magnetic fieldthat causes hyperfine or rotational splitting in hydrogen and oxygengas, that matches the Zeeman splitting in hydrogen atom or hydroxyradicals, the hydrogen or hydroxy intermediate would be energized andwould proceed through the reaction cascade to produce water. By usingthe appropriately tuned moderate magnetic field, the magnetic fieldcould be used to turn the reactants into catalysts for their ownreaction, without the addition of physical catalyst platinum or thespectral catalyst of platinum. Although the magnetic field would simplybe copying the mechanism of action of platinum, the reaction would havethe appearance of being catalyzed solely by an applied magnetic field.

Finally, consider the direction of the magnetic field in relation to theorientation of the molecule. When the magnetic field is parallel to anexciting electromagnetic field, π frequencies are produced. When themagnetic field is perpendicular to an exciting electromagnetic field,

frequencies are found. Assume that there is an industrial chemicalreaction system that uses the same (or similar) starting reactants, butthe goal is to be able to produce different products at will. By usingmagnetic fields combined with spectral energy or physical catalysts, thereaction can be guided to one set of products or another. For the firstset of products, the electromagnetic excitation is oriented parallel tothe magnetic field, producing one set of π frequencies, which leads to afirst set of products. To achieve a different product, the direction ofthe magnetic field is changed so that it is perpendicular to theexciting electromagnetic field. This produces a different set of

frequencies, and a different reaction pathway is energized, thusproducing a different set of products. Thus, according to the presentinvention, magnetic field effects, Zeeman splitting, splitting andspectral energy catalysts can be used to fine-tune the specificity ofmany reaction systems.

In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanism tochemical reactions, magnetic fields can be used as yet another tool tocatalyze and modify those chemical reactions by modifying the spectralcharacteristics of at least one participant and/or at least onecomponent in the reaction system.

Reactor Vessel Size, Shape and Composition

An important consideration in the use of spectral chemistry is thereactor vessel size, shape and composition. The reactor vessel size andshape can affect the vessel's NOF to various wave energies (e.g., EM,acoustic, electrical current, etc). This in turn may affect reactionsystem dynamics. For instance, a particularly small bench-top reactorvessel may have an EM NOF of 1,420 MHz related to a 25 cm dimension.When a reaction with an atomic hydrogen intermediate is performed in thesmall bench-top reactor, the reaction proceeds quickly, due in part tothe fact that the reactor vessel and the hydrogen hyperfine splittingfrequencies match (1,420 MHz). This allows the reactor vessel andhydrogen intermediates to resonate, thus transferring energy to theintermediate and promoting the reaction pathway.

When the reaction is scaled up for large industrial production, thereaction would occur in a much larger reactor vessel with an EM NOF of,for example, 100 MHz. Because the reactor vessel is no longer resonatingwith the hydrogen intermediate, the reaction proceeds at a slower rate.This deficiency in the larger reactor vessel can be compensated for, by,for example, supplementing the reaction with 1,420 MHz radiation,thereby restoring the faster reaction rate.

Likewise, reactor vessel composition may play a similar role in reactionsystem dynamics. For example, a stainless steel bench-top reactor vesselmay produce vibrational frequencies which resonate with vibrationalfrequencies of a reactant, thus, for example, promoting disassociationof a reactant into reactive intermediates. When the reaction is scaledup for industrial production, it may be placed into, for example, aceramic-lined metal reactor vessel. The new reactor vessel typicallywill not produce the reactant vibrational frequency, and the reactionwill proceed at a slower rate. Once again, this deficiency in the newreactor vessel, caused by its different composition, can be compensatedfor either by returning the reaction to a stainless steel vessel, or bysupplementing, for example, the vibrational frequency of the reactantinto the ceramic-lined vessel

It should now be understood that all the aspects of spectral chemistrypreviously discussed (resonance, targeting, poisons, promoters,supporters, electric and magnetic-fields both endogenous and exogenousto reaction system components, etc.) apply to the reactor vessel, aswell as to, for example, any participant placed inside it. The reactorvessel may be comprised of matter (e.g., stainless steel, plastic,glass, and/or ceramic, etc.) or it may be comprised of a field or energy(e.g., magnetic bottle, light trapping, etc.) A reactor vessel, bypossessing inherent properties such as frequencies, waves, and/orfields, may interact with other components in the reaction system and/orat least one participant. Likewise, holding vessels, conduits, etc.,some of which may interact with the reaction system, but in which thereaction does not actually take place, may interact with one or morecomponents in the reaction system and may potentially affect them,either positively or negatively. Accordingly, when reference is made tothe reactor vessel, it should be understood that all portions associatedtherewith may also be involved in desirable reactions.

EXAMPLES

The invention will be more clearly perceived and better understood fromthe following specific examples.

Example 1 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst In aGas Phase Reaction 2H₂+0₂>>>>platinum catalyst>>>>2H₂O

Water can be produced by the method of exposing H₂ and O₂ to a physicalplatinum (Pt) catalyst but there is always the possibility of producinga potentially dangerous explosive risk. This experiment replaced thephysical platinum catalyst with a spectral catalyst comprising thespectral pattern of the physical platinum catalyst, which resonates withand transfers energy to the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates.

To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form waterutilizing a spectral catalyst, electrolysis of water was performed toprovide stoichiometric amounts of oxygen and hydrogen starting gases. Atriple neck flask was fitted with two (2) rubber stoppers on the outsidenecks, each fitted with platinum electrodes encased in glass for a four(4) inch length. The flask was filled with distilled water and a pinchof salt so that only the glass-encased portion of the electrode wasexposed to air, and the unencased portion of the electrode wascompletely under water. The central neck was connected via a rubberstopper to vacuum tubing, which led to a Drierite column to remove anywater from the produced gases.

After vacuum removal of all gases in the system (to about 700 mm Hg),electrolysis was conducted using a 12 V power source attached to the twoelectrodes. Electrolysis was commenced with the subsequent production ofhydrogen and oxygen gases in stoichiometric amounts. The gases passedthrough the Drierite column, through vacuum tubing connected to positiveand negative pressure gauges and into a sealed 1,000 ml, round quartzflask. A strip of filter paper, which contained dried cobalt, had beenplaced in the bottom of the sealed flask. Initially the cobalt paper wasblue, indicating the absence of water in the flask. A similar cobalttest strip exposed to the ambient air was also blue.

The traditional physical platinum catalyst was replaced by spectralcatalyst platinum emissions from a Fisher Scientific Hollow CathodePlatinum Lamp which was positioned approximately 2 cm from the flask.This allowed the oxygen and hydrogen gases in the round quartz flask tobe irradiated with emissions from the spectral catalyst. A CathodeonHollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Pt lamp at 80%maximum current

(12 mAmps). The reaction flask was cooled using dry ice in a Styrofoamcontainer positioned directly beneath the round quartz flask, offsettingany effects of heat from the Pt lamp. The Pt lamp was turned on andwithin two days of irradiation, a noticeable pink color was evident onthe cobalt paper strip indicating the presence of water in the roundquartz flask. The cobalt test strip exposed to ambient air in the labremained blue. Over the next four to five days, the pink colored area onthe cobalt strip became brighter and larger. Upon discontinuation of thePt emission, H₂O diffused out of the cobalt strip and was taken up bythe Drierite column. Over the next four to five days, the pinkcoloration of the cobalt strip in the quartz flask faded. The cobaltstrip exposed to the ambient air remained blue.

Example 2 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a SPECTRL Catalyst In aLiquid Phase Reaction H₂O₂>>>>platinum catalyst>>>>H₂0+O₂

The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is an extremely slow reaction inthe absence of catalysts. Accordingly, an experiment was performed whichshowed that the physical catalyst, finely divided platinum, could bereplaced with the spectral catalyst having the spectral pattern ofplatinum. Hydrogen peroxide, 3%, filled two (2) nippled quartz tubes.(the nippled quartz tubes consisted of a lower portion 17 mm internaldiameter and 150 mm in length, narrowing over a 10 mm length to an uppercapillary portion being 2.0 mm internal diameter and 140 mm in lengthand were made from PhotoVac Laser quartz tubing). Both quartz tubes wereinverted in 50 ml beaker reservoirs filled with (3%) hydrogen peroxideto 40 ml and were shielded from incident light (cardboard cylinderscovered with aluminum foil). One of the light shielded tubes was used asa control. The other shielded tube was exposed to a Fisher ScientificHollow Cathode Lamp for platinum (Pt) using a Cathodeon Hollow CathodeLamp Supply C610, at 80% maximum current (12 mA). The experiment wasperformed several times with an exposure time ranging from 24-96 hours.The shielded tubes were monitored for increases in temperature (therewas none) to assure that any reaction was not due to thermal effects. Ina typical experiment the nippled tubes were prepared with hydrogenperoxide (3%) as described above herein. Both tubes were shielded fromlight, and the Pt tube was exposed to platinum spectral emissions, asdescribed above, for about 24 hours. Gas production in the control tubeA measured about four (4) mm in length in the capillary (i.e., about12.5 mm³), while gas in the Pt (tube B) measured about 50 mm (i.e.,about 157 mm³). The platinum spectral catalyst thus increased thereaction rate about 12.5 times.

The tubes were then switched and tube A was exposed to the platinumspectral catalyst, for about 24 hours, while tube B served as thecontrol. Gas production in the control (tube B) measured about 2 mm inlength in the capillary (i.e., about 6 mm³) while gas in the Pt tube(tube A) measured about 36 mm (i.e., about 113 mm³), yielding about a 19fold difference in reaction rate.

As a negative control, to confirm that any lamp would not cause the sameresult, the experiment was repeated with a sodium lamp at 6 mA (80% ofthe maximum current). Na in a traditional reaction would be a reactantwith water releasing hydrogen gas, not a catalyst of hydrogen peroxidebreakdown. The control tube measured gas to be about 4 mm in length(i.e., about 12 mm³) in the capillary portion, while the Na tube gasmeasured to be about

1 mm in length (i.e., about 3 mm³). This indicated that while spectralemissions can substitute for catalysts, they cannot yet substitute forreactants. Also, it indicated that the simple effect of using a hollowcathode tube emitting heat and energy into the hydrogen peroxide was notthe cause of the gas bubble formation, but instead, the spectral patternof Pt replacing the physical catalyst caused the reaction.

Example 3 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst In aSolid Phase Reaction

It is well known that certain microorganisms have a toxic reaction tosilver Ag. It is now understood through this invention, that highintensity spectral frequencies produced in the silver electronicspectrum match with ultraviolet frequencies that are lethal to bacteria(by creation of free radicals and by causing bacterial DNA damage) butare harmless to mammalian cells. Thus, it was theorized that the knownmedicinal and anti-microbial uses of silver are due to a spectralcatalyst effect. In this regard, an experiment was conducted whichshowed that the spectral catalyst emitting the spectrum of silverdemonstrated a toxic or inhibitory effect on microorganisms.

Bacterial cultures were placed onto standard growth medium in two petridishes (one control and one Ag) using standard plating techniquescovering the entire dish. Each dish was placed at the bottom of a lightshielding cylindrical chamber. A light shielding foil-covered, cardboarddisc with a patterned slit was placed over each culture plate. A FisherScientific Hollow Cathode Lamp for Silver (Ag) was inserted through thetop of the Ag exposure chamber so that only the spectral emissionpattern from the silver lamp was irradiating the bacteria on the Agculture plate (i.e., through the patterned slit). A Cathodeon HollowCathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Ag lamp at 80% maximumcurrent (3.6 mA). The control plate was not exposed to emissions of anAg lamp, and ambient light was blocked. Both control and Ag plates weremaintained at room temperature (e.g., about 70-74° F.) during the silverspectral emission exposure time, which ranged from about 12-24 hours inthe various experiments. Afterwards, both plates were incubated usingstandard techniques (37° C., aerobic Form a Scientific Model 3157,Water-Jacketed Incubator) for about 24 hours.

The following bacteria (obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory atPeople's Hospital in Mansfield, Ohio, US), were studied for effects ofthe Ag lamp spectral emissions:

1. E. coli;

2. Strep. pneumoniae;

3. Staph. aureus; and

4. Salmonella typhi.

This group included both Gram⁺ and Gram⁻ species, as well as cocci androds.

Results were as follows:

1. Controls—all controls showed full growth covering the culture plates;

2. The Ag plates

-   -   areas unexposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed full        growth.    -   areas exposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed:        -   a. E. coli—no growth;        -   b. Strep. pneumoniae—no growth;        -   c. Staph. aureus—no growth; and

d. Salmonella tyhli—inhibited growth.

Example 4 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst, andComparing Results to Physical Catalyst Results in a Biologic Preparation

To further demonstrate that certain susceptible organisms which have atoxic reaction to silver would have a similar reaction to the spectralcatalyst emitting the spectrum of silver, cultures were obtained fromthe American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) which included Escherichiacoli #25922, and Klebsiella pneumonia, subsp Pneumoniae, #13883. Controland Ag plate cultures were performed as described above. Afterincubation, plates were examined using a binocular microscope. The E.coli exhibited moderate resistance to the bactericidal effects of thespectral silver emission, while the Klebsiella exhibited moderatesensitivity. All controls exhibited full growth.

Accordingly, an experiment was performed which demonstrated a similarresult using the physical silver catalyst as was obtained with the Agspectral catalyst. Sterile test discs were soaked in an 80 ppm,colloidal silver solution. The same two (2) organisms were again plated,as described above. Colloidal silver test discs were placed on each Agplate, while the control plates had none. The plates were incubated asdescribed above and examined under the binocular microscope. Thecolloidal silver E. coli exhibited moderate resistance to thebactericidal effects of the physical colloidal silver, while theKlebsiella again exhibited moderate sensitivity. All controls exhibitedfull growth.

Example 5 Augmenting a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst

To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form waterutilizing a spectral catalyst to augment a physical catalyst,electrolysis of water was performed to provide the necessary oxygen andhydrogen starting gases, as in Example 1.

Two quartz flasks (A and B) were connected separately after the Drieritecolumn, each with its own set of vacuum and pressure gauges. Platinumpowder (31 mg) was placed in each flask. The flasks were filled withelectrolytically produced stoichiometric amounts of H₂ and O₂ to 120 mmHg. The flasks were separated by a stopcock from the electrolysis systemand from each other. The pressure in each flask was recorded over timeas the reaction proceeded over the physical platinum catalyst. Thereaction combines three (3) moles of gases, (i.e., two (2) moles H2 andone (1) mole O₂), to produce two (2) moles H₂O. This decrease inmolarity, and hence progress of the reaction, can be monitored by adecrease in pressure “P” which is proportional, via the ideal gas law,(PV=nRT), to molarity “n”. A baseline rate of reaction was thusobtained. Additionally, the test was repeated filling each flask with H₂and O₂ to 220 mm Hg. Catalysis of the reaction by only the physicalcatalyst yielded two baseline reaction curves which were in goodagreement between flasks A and B, and for both the 110 mm and 220 mm Hgtests.

Next, the traditional physical platinum catalyst in flask A wasaugmented with spectral catalyst platinum emissions from two (2)parallel Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode Platinum Lamps, as in Example1, which were positioned approximately two (2) cm from flask A. The testwas repeated as described above, separating the two (2) flasks from eachother and monitoring the rate of the reaction via the pressure decreasein each. Flask B served as a control flask. In flask A, the oxygen andhydrogen gases, as well as the physical platinum catalyst, were directlyirradiated with emissions from the Pt lamp spectral catalyst.

Rate of reaction in the control flask B, was in good agreement withprevious baseline rates. Rate of reaction in flask “A”, wherein physicalplatinum catalyst was augmented with the platinum spectral pattern,exhibited an overall mean increase of 60%, with a maximal increase of70% over the baseline and flask B.

Example 6 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Fine StructureHeterodyned Frequency and Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a FineStructure Frequency the Alpha Rotation-Vibration Constant

Water was electrolyzed to produce stoichiometric amounts of hydrogen andoxygen gases as described above herein. Additionally, a dry ice cooledstainless steel coil was placed immediately after the Drierite column.After vacuum removal of all gases in the system, electrolysis wasaccomplished using a 12 V power source attached to the two electrodes,resulting in a production of hydrogen and oxygen gases. After passingthrough the Drierite column, the hydrogen and oxygen gases passedthrough vacuum tubing connected to positive and negative pressuregauges, through the dry ice cooled stainless steel coil and then to a1,000 ml round, quartz flask. A strip of filter paper impregnated withdry (blue) cobalt was in the bottom of the quartz flask, as an indicatorof the presence or absence of water.

The entire system was vacuum evacuated to a pressure of about 700 mm Hgbelow atmospheric pressure. Electrolysis was performed, producinghydrogen and oxygen gases in stoichiometric amounts, to result in apressure of about 220 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure. The center ofthe quartz flask, now containing hydrogen and oxygen gases, wasirradiated for approximately 12 hours with continuous microwaveelectromagnetic radiation emitted from a Hewlett Packard microwavespectroscopy system which included an HP 83350B Sweep Oscillator, an HP8510B Network Analyzer and an HP 8513A Reflection Transmission Test Set.The frequency used was 21.4 GHz, which corresponds to a fine splittingconstant, the alpha rotation-vibration constant, of the hydroxyintermediate, and is thus a harmonic resonant heterodyne for the hydroxyradical. The cobalt strip changed strongly in color to pink whichindicated the presence of water in the quartz flask, whose creation wascatalyzed by a harmonic resonant heterodyne frequency for the hydroxyradical.

Example 7 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Hyperfine SplittingFrequency

An experimental dark room was prepared, in which there is no ambientlight, and which can be totally darkened. A shielded, ground room (AceShielded Room, Ace, Philadelphia, Pa., US, Model A6H3-16; 8 feet wide,17 feet long, and 8 feet high copper mesh) was installed inside the darkroom.

Hydrogen peroxide (3%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which werethen inverted in beakers filled with (3%) hydrogen peroxide, asdescribed in greater detail herein. The tubes were allowed to rest forabout 18 hours in the dark room, covered with non-metallic lightblocking hoods (so that the room could be entered without exposing thetubes to light). Baseline measurements of gases in the nippled tubeswere then performed.

Three nippled RF tubes were placed on a wooden grid table in theshielded room, in the center of grids 4, 54, and 127; corresponding todistances of about 107 cm, 187 cm, and 312 cm respectively, from afrequency-emitting antenna (copper tubing 15 mm diameter, 4.7 moctagonal circumference, with the center frequency at approximately 6.5MHz. A 25 watt, 17 MHz signal was sent to the antenna. This frequencycorresponds to a hyperfine splitting frequency of the hydrogen atom,which is a transient in the dissociation of hydrogen peroxide. Theantenna was pulsed continuously by a BK Precision RF Signal GeneratorModel 2005A, and amplified by an Amplifier Research amplifier, Model25A-100. A control tube was placed on a wooden cart immediately adjacentto the shielded room, in the dark room. All tubes were covered withnon-metallic light blocking hoods.

After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogenperoxide and resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes wasmeasured. The RF tube closest to the antenna produced 11 mm length gasin the capillary (34 mm³), the tube intermediate to the antenna produceda 5 mm length (10 mm³) gas, and the RF tube farthest from the antennaproduced no gas. The control tube produced 1 mm gas. Thus, it can beconcluded that the RF hyperfine splitting frequency for hydrogenincreased the reaction rate approximately five (5) to ten (10) times.

Example 8 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Magnetic Field

Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which werethen inverted in beakers filled with (15%) hydrogen peroxide, asdescribed above. The tubes were allowed to rest for four (4) hours on awooden table in a shielded cage, in a dark room. Baseline measurementsof gases in the nippled tubes were then performed.

Remaining in the shielded cage, in the dark room, two (2) control tubeswere left on a wooden table as controls. Two (2) magnetic field tubeswere placed on the center platform of an ETS Helmholtz single axis coil,Model 6402, 1.06 gauss/Ampere, pulsed at about 83 Hz by a BK Precision20 MHz Sweep/Function Generator, Model 4040. The voltage output of thefunction generator was adjusted to produce an alternating magnetic fieldof about 19.5 milliGauss on the center platform of the Helmholtz Coil,as measured by a Holaday Model HI-3627, three (3) axis ELF magneticfield meter and probe. Hydrogen atoms, which are a transient in thedissociation of hydrogen peroxide, exhibit nuclear magnetic resonancevia Zeeman splitting at this applied frequency and applied magneticfield strength. Thus, frequency of the alternating magnetic field wasresonant with the hydrogen transients.

After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogenperoxide and resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes wasmeasured. The control tubes averaged about 180 mm gas formation (540mm³) while the tubes exposed to the alternating magnetic field producedabout 810 mm gas (2,430 mm³), resulting in an increase in the reactionrate of approximately four (4) times.

Example 9 Negatively Catalyzing a Reaction with an Electric Field

Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in four (4) nippled quartz tubeswhich were inverted in hydrogen peroxide (15%) filled beakers, asdescribed in greater detail above herein. The tubes were placed on awooden table, in a shielded room, in a dark room. After four (4) hours,baseline measurements were taken of the gas in the capillary portion ofthe tubes.

An Amplifier Research self-contained electromagnetic mode cell (“TEM”)Model TC1510A had been placed in the shielded, darkened room. A sinewave signal of about 133 MHz was provided to the TEM cell by a BKPrecision RF Signal Generator, Model 2005A, and an Amplifier Researchamplifier, Model 25A100. Output levels on the signal generator andamplifier wave adjusted to produce an electric field (E-field) of aboutfive (5) V/m in the center of the TEM cell, as measured with a HoladayIndustries electric field probe, Model HI-4433GRE, placed in the centerof the lower chamber.

Two of the hydrogen peroxide filled tubes were placed in the center ofthe upper chamber of the TEM cell, about 35 cm from the wall of theshielded room. The other two (2) tubes served as controls and wereplaced on a wooden table, also about 35 cm from the same wall of theshielded, dark room, and removed from the immediate vicinity of the TEMcell, so that there was no ambient electric field, as confirmed byE-field probe measurements.

The 133 MHz alternating sine wave signal delivered to the TEM cell waswell above the typical line width frequency at room temperature (e.g.,about 100 KHz) and was theorized to be resonant with an n=20 Rydbergstate of the hydrogen atom as derived from

ΔE=cE ^(3/4)

where E is the change in energy in cm⁻¹, c is 7.51+/−0.02 for thehydrogen state n=20 and E is the electric field intensity in (Kv/cm)².

After about five (5) hours of exposure to the electric field, the meangas production in the tubes subjected to the E-field was about 17.5 mm,while mean gas production in the control tubes was about 58 mm.

While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation,it is believed that the alternating electric field resonated with anupper energy level in the hydrogen atoms, producing a negative Starkeffect, and thereby negatively catalyzing the reaction.

Example 10 Augmentation of a Physical Catalyst by IrradiatingReactants/Transients with a Spectral Catalyst

Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced in stoichiometric amounts byelectrolysis, as previously described in greater detail above herein. Astainless steel coil cooled in dry ice was placed immediately after theDrierite column. Positive and negative pressure gauges were connectedafter the coil, and then a 1,000 ml round quartz flask was sequentiallyconnected with a second set of pressure gauges.

At the beginning of each experimental run, the entire system was vacuumevacuated to a pressure of about minus 650 mm Hg. The system was sealedfor about 15 minutes to confirm the maintenance of the generated vacuumand integrity of the connections. Electrolysis of water to producehydrogen and oxygen gases was performed, as described previously.

Initially, about 10 mg of finely divided platinum was placed into theround quartz flask. Reactant gases were allowed to react over theplatinum and the reaction rate was monitored by increasing the rate ofpressure drop over time, as previously described. The starting pressurewas approximately in the mid-90's mm Hg positive pressure, and theending pressure was approximately in the low 30's over the amount oftime that measurements were taken. Two (2) control runs were performed,with reaction rates of about 0.47 mm Hg/minute and about 0.48 mmHg/minute.

For the third run, a single platinum lamp was applied, as previouslydescribed, except that the operating current was reduced to about eight(8) mA and the lamp was positioned through the center of the flask toirradiate only the reactant/transient gases, and not the physicalplatinum catalyst. The reaction rate was determined, as described above,and was found to be about 0.63 mm Hg/minute, an increase of 34%.

Example 11 Apparent Poisoning of a Reaction by the Spectral Pattern of aPhysical Poison

The conversion of hydrogen and oxygen gases to water, over a steppedplatinum physical catalyst, is known to be poisoned by gold. Addition ofgold to this platinum catalyzed reaction reduces reaction rates by about95%. The gold blocks only about one sixth of the platinum binding sites,which according to prior art, would need to be blocked to poison thephysical catalyst to this degree. Thus, it was theorized that a spectralinteraction of the physical gold with the physical platinum and/orreaction system could also be responsible for the poisoning effects ofgold on the reaction. It was further theorized that addition of the goldspectral pattern to the reaction catalyzed by physical platinum couldalso poison the reaction.

Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced by electrolysis, as describedabove in greater detail. Finely directed platinum, about 15 mg, wasadded to the round quartz flask. Starting pressures were about in the90's mm Hg positive pressure, and ending pressures were about in the20's mm Hg over the amount of time that measurements were taken.Reaction rates were determined as previously described. The firstcontrol run revealed a reaction rate of about 0.81 mm Hg/minute.

In the second run, a Fisher Hollow Cathode Gold lamp was applied, aspreviously described, at an operating frequency of about eight (8) mA,(80% maximum current), through about the center of the round flask. Thereaction rate increased to about 0.87 mm Hg/minute.

A third run was then performed on the same reaction flask and physicalplatinum that had been in the flask exposed to the gold spectralpattern. The reaction rate decreased to about 0.75 mm Hg/minute.

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 9. A method for controlling areaction system comprising: forming a reaction system comprising atleast one member selected from the group consisting of reactants,transients and reaction product; and applying at least one spectralenergy pattern to said reaction system, said at least one appliedspectral energy pattern corresponding to a known physical poison forsaid reaction system, thereby slowing at least one reaction in saidreaction system.
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 26. (canceled)27. A method for decreasing the rate of a water formation reactioncomprising: irradiating a reaction system comprising hydrogen, oxygenand atomic hydrogen with a spectral energy catalyst, said spectralenergy catalyst consisting of gold electromagnetic emissions.
 28. Themethod of claim 27, wherein said reaction system further comprisesphysical platinum.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein said physicalplatinum comprises platinum powder.
 30. The method of claim 28, whereinsaid reaction system further comprises hydroxyl radical.
 31. The methodof claim 30, wherein said hydroxyl radical is direct resonance targetedwith said platinum electromagnetic emissions.
 32. A method fordecreasing the rate of a water formation reaction comprising: directresonance targeting atomic hydrogen in a reaction system comprisinghydrogen, oxygen and atomic hydrogen said direct resonance targeting ofsaid atomic hydrogen occurring by irradiating said reaction system witha spectral energy catalyst consisting of gold electromagnetic emissions.33. The method of claim 32, wherein said reaction system furthercomprises hydroxyl radical.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein saidhydroxyl radical is direct resonance targeted with said spectral energycatalyst.
 35. The method of claim 32, wherein said reaction systemfurther comprises physical platinum.
 36. The method of claim 35, whereinsaid physical platinum comprises platinum powder.